## Monday, January 26, 2026
Welcome to Astronomy Daily! Join hosts Anna and Avery as they explore the latest developments in space and astronomy, from ambitious plans to terraform Mars to stunning new views of dying stars.
### Episode Highlights
**Mars Terraforming Gets Serious**
Scientists unveil a comprehensive blueprint for transforming Mars into a habitable world. Discover the three-phase plan using Martian resources, engineered nanoparticles, and hardy microorganisms that could warm the Red Planet by 30°C and eventually create breathable air. But should we terraform Mars at all?
**Harvesting Water from Mars' Atmosphere**
While underground ice remains the primary water source for future Mars missions, researchers reveal how atmospheric moisture could provide a crucial backup. Learn about the innovative technologies that could make Mars settlements more self-sufficient.
**Chandra's Cosmic Catalog Milestone**
NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory has now cataloged over 1.3 million X-ray detections across the sky. We explore this treasure trove of data spanning 22 years of observations, including a stunning view of the Galactic Center with over 3,300 sources in just 60 light-years.
**Earthquake Sensors Track Space Debris**
Ingenious new research shows how seismic monitoring networks can track dangerous falling satellites in near real-time. Discover how scientists reconstructed the trajectory and breakup of China's Shenzhou-15 module using earthquake sensors.
**Water Worlds or Lava Planets?**
Shocking new findings suggest 98% of planets we thought were ocean-bearing "hycean worlds" might actually be molten rock. Learn about the Solidification Shoreline model that's rewriting our understanding of sub-Neptune exoplanets.
**Webb Captures a Dying Star's Beauty**
The James Webb Space Telescope reveals the Helix Nebula in unprecedented detail, showing us the eventual fate of our own Sun. Witness stellar recycling in action as a dying star distributes the building blocks of future worlds.
### Links & Resources
- Research on Mars terraforming strategies
- Advances in Space Research journal study on atmospheric water harvesting
- Chandra Source Catalog: cxc.cfa.harvard.edu/csc/
- Science journal publication on seismic debris tracking
- arXiv preprint on sub-Neptune exoplanet composition
- Webb Space Telescope Helix Nebula observations
For more space news and daily episodes, visit astronomydaily.io
Follow us on social media @AstroDailyPod
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00:00:00 --> 00:00:03 Anna: Welcome to Astronomy Daily, your source for
00:00:03 --> 00:00:05 the latest space and astronomy news. I'm
00:00:05 --> 00:00:06 Anna.
00:00:06 --> 00:00:08 Avery: And I'm Avery. We've got another stellar
00:00:08 --> 00:00:11 episode lined up for you today. Monday,
00:00:11 --> 00:00:13 January 26, 2026.
00:00:14 --> 00:00:17 Anna: That's right. Today we're taking you on quite
00:00:17 --> 00:00:19 a journey through the cosmos. We'll be
00:00:19 --> 00:00:22 exploring two fascinating Mars storeys that
00:00:22 --> 00:00:24 paint very different pictures of the Red
00:00:24 --> 00:00:26 Planet's future. From terraforming dreams
00:00:26 --> 00:00:29 to atmospheric water harvesting for survival.
00:00:30 --> 00:00:31 Avery: Plus, we've got some incredible disc
00:00:31 --> 00:00:34 discoveries from across the universe. We'll
00:00:34 --> 00:00:36 reveal how NASA's Chandra Observatory has
00:00:36 --> 00:00:39 catalogued over 1.3 million x
00:00:39 --> 00:00:42 ray sources, discover an ingenious new use
00:00:42 --> 00:00:44 for earthquake sensors that could save lives,
00:00:44 --> 00:00:47 and uncover why those water worlds we've been
00:00:47 --> 00:00:50 excited about might actually be lava
00:00:50 --> 00:00:51 planets in the skies.
00:00:51 --> 00:00:54 Anna: And we'll finish with a breathtaking look at
00:00:54 --> 00:00:57 our cosmic future, courtesy of the James Webb
00:00:57 --> 00:00:59 Space Telescope's latest images of a dying
00:00:59 --> 00:01:02 star. So settle in because we're about to
00:01:02 --> 00:01:04 explore the univers together.
00:01:04 --> 00:01:06 Avery: Let's get started, Avery.
00:01:06 --> 00:01:08 Anna: Let's kick things off with what could be one
00:01:08 --> 00:01:11 of humanity's most ambitious projects ever.
00:01:11 --> 00:01:13 Scientists are saying it's time to take
00:01:13 --> 00:01:16 terraforming Mars seriously and they've got a
00:01:16 --> 00:01:18 roadmap to make it happen.
00:01:18 --> 00:01:20 Avery: This is fascinating stuff, Anna. Uh, for
00:01:20 --> 00:01:23 decades, terraforming Mars has been the stuff
00:01:23 --> 00:01:26 of science fiction. But new research suggests
00:01:26 --> 00:01:28 we might actually have the tools to pull it
00:01:28 --> 00:01:30 off. A team of planetary scientists,
00:01:30 --> 00:01:33 biologists and engineers has published what
00:01:33 --> 00:01:35 amounts to a blueprint for transforming the
00:01:35 --> 00:01:37 Red Planet into a habitable world.
00:01:38 --> 00:01:40 Anna: What's really interesting is the timeline
00:01:40 --> 00:01:42 they're proposing. This isn't a quick fix.
00:01:42 --> 00:01:45 We're talking about a, uh, multi generational
00:01:45 --> 00:01:48 project that could take centuries. But the
00:01:48 --> 00:01:50 key breakthrough is that they believe we can
00:01:50 --> 00:01:52 use resources already on Mars rather
00:01:52 --> 00:01:54 than shipping everything from Earth.
00:01:54 --> 00:01:57 Avery: Exactly. The plan has three distinct
00:01:57 --> 00:02:00 phases. Phase one is all about warming the
00:02:00 --> 00:02:03 planet. Right now, Mars averages around minus
00:02:03 --> 00:02:05 70 degrees Celsius. The scientists propose
00:02:05 --> 00:02:08 using engineered nanoparticles made from
00:02:08 --> 00:02:11 Martian dust, shaped like tiny rods and
00:02:11 --> 00:02:13 released into the atmosphere. These particles
00:02:13 --> 00:02:16 would trap escaping heat and scatter sunlight
00:02:16 --> 00:02:18 towards the surface, potentially warming Mars
00:02:18 --> 00:02:20 by more than 30 degrees Celsius.
00:02:21 --> 00:02:23 Anna: And here's the clever part. This method is
00:02:23 --> 00:02:26 over 5000 times more efficient than previous
00:02:26 --> 00:02:29 terraforming schemes. University of
00:02:29 --> 00:02:32 Chicago planetary scientist Edwin Kite, one
00:02:32 --> 00:02:34 of the study's co authors, notes that Mars
00:02:34 --> 00:02:37 was habitable in the past. So greening
00:02:37 --> 00:02:39 Mars could be viewed as the ultimate
00:02:39 --> 00:02:41 environmental restoration challenge.
00:02:41 --> 00:02:44 Avery: Phase two brings in biology. Once
00:02:44 --> 00:02:46 temperatures rise enough to melt some of
00:02:46 --> 00:02:48 Mars's vast ice deposits, scientists would
00:02:48 --> 00:02:50 introduce genetically engineered
00:02:50 --> 00:02:53 extremophiles, hardy microorganisms that
00:02:53 --> 00:02:55 can survive in the harshest environments.
00:02:56 --> 00:02:58 These pioneer species would kick off
00:02:58 --> 00:03:01 ecological succession, creating organic
00:03:01 --> 00:03:03 matter and slowly changing the chemistry of
00:03:03 --> 00:03:04 the surface and atmosphere.
00:03:05 --> 00:03:07 Anna: And the final phase is the longest and most
00:03:07 --> 00:03:10 ambitious, building a stable biosphere
00:03:10 --> 00:03:13 with oxygen rich air. The goal is a
00:03:13 --> 00:03:16 0.1 bar oxygen atmosphere, which would be
00:03:16 --> 00:03:18 enough to sustain human life without pressure
00:03:18 --> 00:03:21 suits. Harvard planetary scientist Robin
00:03:21 --> 00:03:24 Wordsworth puts it beautifully. Life is
00:03:24 --> 00:03:26 precious. We know of nowhere else in the
00:03:26 --> 00:03:29 universe where it exists. We have a duty to
00:03:29 --> 00:03:31 conserve it on Earth, but also to consider
00:03:31 --> 00:03:34 how we could begin to propagate it to other
00:03:34 --> 00:03:34 worlds.
00:03:35 --> 00:03:37 Avery: But this isn't just about making Mars
00:03:37 --> 00:03:39 habitable. Nina Lanza from Los Alamos
00:03:39 --> 00:03:42 National Laboratory sees Mars as a prime
00:03:42 --> 00:03:44 testbed for planetary engineering. She
00:03:44 --> 00:03:46 suggests that if we want to learn how to
00:03:46 --> 00:03:48 modify our environment here on Earth to keep
00:03:48 --> 00:03:51 it habitable, maybe it would be better to
00:03:51 --> 00:03:53 experiment on Mars first, rather than being
00:03:53 --> 00:03:55 too bold with our home planet.
00:03:55 --> 00:03:58 Anna: Of course, there are serious ethical
00:03:58 --> 00:04:00 considerations. As Lanza points out, if
00:04:00 --> 00:04:03 we terraform Mars, we'll really change it in
00:04:03 --> 00:04:06 ways that may or may not be reversible.
00:04:06 --> 00:04:09 Mars has its own history and we might lose
00:04:09 --> 00:04:11 the opportunity to study how planets form and
00:04:11 --> 00:04:13 evolve in their natural state.
00:04:13 --> 00:04:15 Avery: The researchers stress that we need to start
00:04:15 --> 00:04:18 preparing now. Even though actual
00:04:18 --> 00:04:20 terraforming is still far off. Upcoming
00:04:20 --> 00:04:23 Mars missions in 2028 or 2031
00:04:23 --> 00:04:26 should include small scale experiments to
00:04:26 --> 00:04:28 test these strategies, such as warming
00:04:28 --> 00:04:31 localised regions. Any technology deployed
00:04:31 --> 00:04:34 must be reversible, controllable and
00:04:34 --> 00:04:35 biologically safe.
00:04:35 --> 00:04:38 Anna: It's an audacious vision. But as the team
00:04:38 --> 00:04:41 points out, 30 years ago, terraforming
00:04:41 --> 00:04:44 Mars wasn't just hard, it was impossible.
00:04:44 --> 00:04:47 Today, with advances in technology and our
00:04:47 --> 00:04:49 understanding of Mars, it's becoming a real
00:04:49 --> 00:04:52 possibility. Whether we should do it is a
00:04:52 --> 00:04:53 question we'll need to answer as a
00:04:53 --> 00:04:54 civilization.
00:04:55 --> 00:04:57 Avery: Sticking with Mars, Anna Our next storey
00:04:57 --> 00:04:59 takes a more immediate look at how future
00:04:59 --> 00:05:02 astronauts might survive on the Red Planet.
00:05:02 --> 00:05:04 New research suggests that the Martian
00:05:04 --> 00:05:06 atmosphere itself could provide a vital
00:05:06 --> 00:05:08 backup water source.
00:05:08 --> 00:05:11 Anna: This is really practical thinking, Avery.
00:05:11 --> 00:05:13 While underground ice remains the most
00:05:13 --> 00:05:15 promising long term water source for Mars
00:05:15 --> 00:05:17 missions, scientists are now exploring
00:05:17 --> 00:05:20 atmospheric water harvesting as an adaptable
00:05:20 --> 00:05:23 solution for scenarios where subsurface
00:05:23 --> 00:05:24 resources are inaccessible.
00:05:25 --> 00:05:27 Avery: The study, led by Dr. Vasilis Englesakis
00:05:27 --> 00:05:30 of Strathclyde University and published in
00:05:30 --> 00:05:33 Advances in Space Research, emphasises
00:05:33 --> 00:05:34 building a self sufficient water
00:05:34 --> 00:05:37 infrastructure. As Dr. Anglizakis explains,
00:05:38 --> 00:05:40 reliable access to water would be essential
00:05:40 --> 00:05:43 for human survival on Mars. Not only for
00:05:43 --> 00:05:45 drinking, but also for producing oxygen and
00:05:45 --> 00:05:48 fuel, which would reduce dependence on Earth
00:05:48 --> 00:05:48 based supplies.
00:05:49 --> 00:05:52 Anna: The challenge is that Mars atmosphere is
00:05:52 --> 00:05:54 extremely thin and cold, but it does
00:05:54 --> 00:05:57 contain trace amounts of water vapour that
00:05:57 --> 00:05:59 could be collected and condensed using
00:05:59 --> 00:06:02 specialised technology. The study introduces
00:06:02 --> 00:06:04 novel approaches inspired by Earth based
00:06:04 --> 00:06:07 dehumidification and sorption technologies.
00:06:07 --> 00:06:10 Avery: What makes this particularly valuable is the
00:06:10 --> 00:06:12 flexibility. While underground ice deposits
00:06:12 --> 00:06:15 are seen as the most practical long term
00:06:15 --> 00:06:17 solution, their accessibility is limited,
00:06:17 --> 00:06:19 especially near likely landing zones for
00:06:19 --> 00:06:22 human missions. Since the precise location of
00:06:22 --> 00:06:25 usable ice is uncertain and excavation
00:06:25 --> 00:06:27 technology is still evolving, having
00:06:27 --> 00:06:29 alternative sources is essential.
00:06:29 --> 00:06:32 Anna: Atmospheric water harvesting offers a mobile,
00:06:32 --> 00:06:35 adaptable alternative. The equipment would be
00:06:35 --> 00:06:37 portable, making it a compelling addition to
00:06:37 --> 00:06:39 the toolkit for sustaining human life on
00:06:39 --> 00:06:42 Mars. As Dr. Inglezakis notes, this
00:06:42 --> 00:06:44 study is one of the first to compare the
00:06:44 --> 00:06:46 various technologies that could be deployed
00:06:47 --> 00:06:49 to recover water in a Martian environment.
00:06:49 --> 00:06:52 Avery: The key takeaway is that future Mars missions
00:06:52 --> 00:06:54 will require not just one solution, but a uh,
00:06:54 --> 00:06:57 layered approach. Combining underground ice
00:06:57 --> 00:07:00 extraction, soil moisture recovery and
00:07:00 --> 00:07:02 atmospheric harvesting will allow missions to
00:07:02 --> 00:07:04 adapt to different environmental and
00:07:04 --> 00:07:05 logistical conditions.
00:07:06 --> 00:07:08 Anna: While the process is energy intensive,
00:07:08 --> 00:07:11 atmospheric harvesting can serve as a crucial
00:07:11 --> 00:07:14 contingency, especially in emergencies or
00:07:14 --> 00:07:16 during long range missions. The research
00:07:16 --> 00:07:18 offers insights that could make future space
00:07:18 --> 00:07:21 exploration missions more self sufficient and
00:07:21 --> 00:07:22 sustainable.
00:07:22 --> 00:07:25 Avery: It's this kind of practical, multifaceted
00:07:25 --> 00:07:27 planning that will ultimately make long
00:07:27 --> 00:07:29 duration Mars missions and potential
00:07:29 --> 00:07:31 colonisation efforts successful. Every
00:07:31 --> 00:07:34 backup system counts when you're 225
00:07:34 --> 00:07:37 million kilometres away from home, from the.
00:07:37 --> 00:07:39 Anna: Red Planet to the entire cosmos.
00:07:39 --> 00:07:42 Avery let's talk about NASA's Chandra X
00:07:42 --> 00:07:45 Ray Observatory and its incredible catalogue
00:07:45 --> 00:07:46 of cosmic recordings.
00:07:46 --> 00:07:48 Avery: Anna uh, this is like the ultimate
00:07:48 --> 00:07:51 astronomical music collection. The Chandra
00:07:51 --> 00:07:53 source catalogue now contains over
00:07:53 --> 00:07:56 1.3 million X ray detections
00:07:56 --> 00:07:59 across the sky, representing 22 years of
00:07:59 --> 00:08:01 observations from one of NASA's great
00:08:01 --> 00:08:02 observatories.
00:08:02 --> 00:08:04 Anna: The latest version, called CSC
00:08:05 --> 00:08:08 2.1 contains data through the end
00:08:08 --> 00:08:10 of 2020 and includes over
00:08:10 --> 00:08:13 400 unique compact and
00:08:13 --> 00:08:16 extended sources. This catalogue is
00:08:16 --> 00:08:18 a treasure trove for scientists, providing
00:08:18 --> 00:08:21 everything from precise positions in the sky
00:08:21 --> 00:08:24 to detailed information about X ray
00:08:24 --> 00:08:24 energies.
00:08:25 --> 00:08:27 Avery: What makes this particularly valuable is that
00:08:27 --> 00:08:30 it allows scientists using other telescopes
00:08:30 --> 00:08:33 both on the ground and in space, including
00:08:33 --> 00:08:36 NASA's James Webb and Hubble telescopes,
00:08:36 --> 00:08:38 to combine Chandra's unique X ray data with
00:08:38 --> 00:08:41 information from other wavelengths of light.
00:08:41 --> 00:08:44 Anna: To illustrate the richness of this catalogue,
00:08:44 --> 00:08:47 NASA released a stunning new image of the
00:08:47 --> 00:08:49 Galactic Centre, the region around the
00:08:49 --> 00:08:52 supermassive Black hole at the heart of the
00:08:52 --> 00:08:54 Milky Way, Sagittarius A.
00:08:55 --> 00:08:57 In just a 60 light year span,
00:08:57 --> 00:09:00 Chandra has detected over 3300
00:09:00 --> 00:09:02 individual X ray sources.
00:09:02 --> 00:09:04 Avery: That's incredible when you think about it.
00:09:05 --> 00:09:07 3300 sources and what amounts to a
00:09:07 --> 00:09:10 pinprick on the entire sky. This image
00:09:10 --> 00:09:13 represents 86 observations added together,
00:09:14 --> 00:09:16 totaling over 3 million seconds of Chandra
00:09:16 --> 00:09:17 observing time.
00:09:18 --> 00:09:20 Anna: They've also created a fascinating
00:09:20 --> 00:09:23 sonification of the catalogue, translating
00:09:23 --> 00:09:25 the astronomical data into sound. The
00:09:25 --> 00:09:28 sonification encompasses the new map that
00:09:28 --> 00:09:31 includes all of Chandra's observations from
00:09:31 --> 00:09:34 its launch through 2021, showing how
00:09:34 --> 00:09:37 X ray sources appear and reappear over
00:09:37 --> 00:09:39 time through different musical notes.
00:09:39 --> 00:09:42 Avery: In the visualisation, each X ray detection is
00:09:42 --> 00:09:45 represented by a circle, and the size of a
00:09:45 --> 00:09:46 circle is determined by the number of
00:09:46 --> 00:09:49 detections in that location over time. You
00:09:49 --> 00:09:51 can see the core of the Milky Way in the
00:09:51 --> 00:09:53 centre and the galactic plane stretching
00:09:53 --> 00:09:55 horizontally across the image.
00:09:55 --> 00:09:58 Anna: And here's the exciting part. Since
00:09:58 --> 00:10:01 Chandra continues to be fully operational,
00:10:01 --> 00:10:03 the catalogue keeps growing. The video
00:10:04 --> 00:10:06 transitions to and beyond after
00:10:06 --> 00:10:09 2021 as the telescope continues
00:10:09 --> 00:10:10 to collect new observ.
00:10:11 --> 00:10:14 Avery: This catalogue represents decades of cutting
00:10:14 --> 00:10:16 edge science and will continue to be an
00:10:16 --> 00:10:18 invaluable resource for astronomers studying
00:10:18 --> 00:10:21 everything from stellar evolution to the
00:10:21 --> 00:10:24 nature of black holes. It's a testament to
00:10:24 --> 00:10:26 the longevity and continued productivity of
00:10:26 --> 00:10:27 the Chandra mission.
00:10:28 --> 00:10:31 Anna: Now for something completely different. Avery
00:10:31 --> 00:10:33 scientists have found an ingenious new use
00:10:33 --> 00:10:36 for earthquake sensors, tracking dangerous
00:10:36 --> 00:10:39 space debris as it falls back to Earth.
00:10:39 --> 00:10:42 Avery: This is such a clever solution to a growing
00:10:42 --> 00:10:45 problem. Every year, thousands of discarded
00:10:45 --> 00:10:47 satellites orbit our planet and an increasing
00:10:47 --> 00:10:49 number are falling back into Earth's
00:10:49 --> 00:10:51 atmosphere. While most disintegrate before
00:10:51 --> 00:10:54 hitting the ground, some survive long enough
00:10:54 --> 00:10:55 to pose real dangers.
00:10:55 --> 00:10:58 Anna: Researchers from Johns Hopkins University and
00:10:58 --> 00:11:01 the University of London have demonstrated
00:11:01 --> 00:11:04 that existing seismic monitoring networks can
00:11:04 --> 00:11:06 track these falling satellites with
00:11:06 --> 00:11:09 remarkable accuracy. The investigation was
00:11:09 --> 00:11:12 led by Benjamin Fernando, a UH postdoctoral
00:11:12 --> 00:11:14 fellow at Johns Hopkins, who studies seismic
00:11:14 --> 00:11:17 activity on both Earth and other planets.
00:11:18 --> 00:11:20 Avery: Here's how it works. When falling objects re
00:11:20 --> 00:11:23 enter Earth's atmosphere at high speed, they
00:11:23 --> 00:11:26 generate sonic booms. These sonic
00:11:26 --> 00:11:28 booms create shock waves that ripple through
00:11:28 --> 00:11:30 the ground. And seismometers can detect this
00:11:30 --> 00:11:32 seismic energy just like they detect
00:11:32 --> 00:11:33 earthquakes.
00:11:33 --> 00:11:36 Anna: The team demonstrated this by analysing the
00:11:36 --> 00:11:39 April 2, 2024 re entry
00:11:39 --> 00:11:42 of China's Shenzhou 15 orbital
00:11:42 --> 00:11:45 module. This module was about 3
00:11:45 --> 00:11:47 1/2ft in diameter and weighed over
00:11:47 --> 00:11:50 1.5 tonnes. Definitely
00:11:50 --> 00:11:52 dangerous if any component reached Earth's
00:11:52 --> 00:11:53 surface.
00:11:53 --> 00:11:56 Avery: Using127 Seismometers in
00:11:56 --> 00:11:58 Southern California. They tracked the module
00:11:58 --> 00:12:01 as it travelled at Hypersonic velocities
00:12:01 --> 00:12:03 between Mach 25 and Mach 30,
00:12:04 --> 00:12:06 roughly 10 times faster than the world's
00:12:06 --> 00:12:09 fastest jet. From the seismometer data, they
00:12:09 --> 00:12:11 reconstructed the object's trajectory,
00:12:12 --> 00:12:14 determining it followed a northeasterly path
00:12:14 --> 00:12:16 over Santa Barbara and Las Vegas.
00:12:16 --> 00:12:19 Anna: What's particularly impressive is that their
00:12:19 --> 00:12:22 reconstruction placed the flight path about
00:12:22 --> 00:12:25 25 miles north of the predicted RE entry
00:12:25 --> 00:12:27 path from orbital tracking alone. This
00:12:27 --> 00:12:29 highlights the limitations of current
00:12:29 --> 00:12:32 tracking methods once objects enter the
00:12:32 --> 00:12:33 denser parts of the atmosphere.
00:12:34 --> 00:12:36 Avery: The seismic data also revealed the breakup
00:12:36 --> 00:12:39 pattern. Initially the signals showed the
00:12:39 --> 00:12:42 spacecraft was mostly intact during its high
00:12:42 --> 00:12:44 altitude trajectory. Later signals
00:12:44 --> 00:12:47 indicated complex waveforms showing
00:12:47 --> 00:12:49 fragmentation about eight to 11
00:12:49 --> 00:12:51 unique breakup events within just two
00:12:51 --> 00:12:52 seconds.
00:12:52 --> 00:12:55 Anna: This gradual degradation pattern is crucial
00:12:55 --> 00:12:58 information. It suggested that dense
00:12:58 --> 00:13:01 reinforced components likely survived long
00:13:01 --> 00:13:03 enough to reach the lower atmosphere,
00:13:03 --> 00:13:05 increasing their chances of landing intact.
00:13:06 --> 00:13:08 Avery: Beyond just tracking where debris lands, this
00:13:08 --> 00:13:10 method addresses environmental concerns.
00:13:11 --> 00:13:13 Falling debris can produce tiny particulate
00:13:13 --> 00:13:15 matter containing toxic propellants or
00:13:15 --> 00:13:18 radioactive materials. For example,
00:13:18 --> 00:13:20 Chilean scientists found man made plutonium
00:13:20 --> 00:13:23 in a glacier that they suspect came from the
00:13:23 --> 00:13:25 Russian spacecraft uh, Mars 96, which
00:13:25 --> 00:13:27 disintegrated in 1996.
00:13:28 --> 00:13:30 Anna: The ability to track debris in near real
00:13:30 --> 00:13:33 time, providing accurate locations within
00:13:33 --> 00:13:36 minutes instead of days or weeks would help
00:13:36 --> 00:13:39 authorities respond faster, protect people
00:13:39 --> 00:13:41 and identify hazardous materials. It
00:13:41 --> 00:13:44 could also provide aircraft warnings and
00:13:44 --> 00:13:45 support environmental monitoring.
00:13:46 --> 00:13:49 Avery: As Fernando points out, as launches increase
00:13:49 --> 00:13:51 and more large satellite constellations reach
00:13:51 --> 00:13:53 the end of their design lives, tools like
00:13:53 --> 00:13:56 this will become increasingly important. We
00:13:56 --> 00:13:58 need as many different ways as possible to
00:13:58 --> 00:14:00 track and characterise space debris.
00:14:01 --> 00:14:03 Anna: Avery Our next storey is going to make
00:14:03 --> 00:14:05 exoplanet hunters rethink some of their most
00:14:05 --> 00:14:08 exciting discoveries. It turns out that
00:14:08 --> 00:14:11 98% of what we thought were potential water
00:14:11 --> 00:14:14 worlds might actually be lava planets.
00:14:14 --> 00:14:16 Avery: This is a real wake up call for the
00:14:16 --> 00:14:18 scientific community. Anna New uh, research
00:14:18 --> 00:14:20 led by Rob Calder at the University of
00:14:20 --> 00:14:23 Cambridge suggests that nearly all known sub
00:14:23 --> 00:14:26 Neptune exoplanets, previously thought to be
00:14:26 --> 00:14:29 potential ocean bearing hycean worlds, are
00:14:29 --> 00:14:31 far more likely to be composed of molten
00:14:31 --> 00:14:32 rock.
00:14:32 --> 00:14:35 Anna: Sub Neptunes are the most commonly discovered
00:14:35 --> 00:14:38 type of exoplanet, larger than Earth but
00:14:38 --> 00:14:41 smaller than Neptune. Yet their exact nature
00:14:41 --> 00:14:43 has remained elusive. Because our solar
00:14:43 --> 00:14:46 system offers no direct equivalent.
00:14:46 --> 00:14:48 Understanding what these worlds are made of
00:14:48 --> 00:14:51 is crucial for the search for life and for
00:14:51 --> 00:14:53 refining our models of planetary formation.
00:14:54 --> 00:14:56 Avery: The problem stems from what scientists call
00:14:56 --> 00:14:59 degeneracy, when one set of observations
00:14:59 --> 00:15:02 can be interpreted in multiple ways. Take the
00:15:02 --> 00:15:05 case of planet K2 18b.
00:15:05 --> 00:15:07 Researchers celebrated its methane rich
00:15:07 --> 00:15:10 ammonia Poor atmosphere as evidence of a
00:15:10 --> 00:15:13 Hycean planet with thick hydrogen atmosphere
00:15:13 --> 00:15:14 overlying vast oceans.
00:15:15 --> 00:15:17 Anna: But here's the twist. Kaldar and his team
00:15:17 --> 00:15:20 point out that molten rock can also dissolve
00:15:20 --> 00:15:23 ammonia just like water can. So the
00:15:23 --> 00:15:25 absence of ammonia doesn't necessarily mean
00:15:25 --> 00:15:28 there are oceans. It could just as easily
00:15:28 --> 00:15:30 indicate a magma ocean.
00:15:30 --> 00:15:32 Avery: To test their theory, the researchers
00:15:32 --> 00:15:34 developed a new model called the
00:15:34 --> 00:15:37 Solidification shoreline. This tool connects
00:15:37 --> 00:15:39 the amount of energy a planet receives from
00:15:39 --> 00:15:41 its star with the star's effective
00:15:41 --> 00:15:43 temperature. By plotting known exoplanets
00:15:43 --> 00:15:46 against this framework, they could estimate
00:15:46 --> 00:15:47 whether a planet was likely to have
00:15:47 --> 00:15:50 maintained a magma ocean since formation.
00:15:50 --> 00:15:53 Anna: Using the Proteus model to simulate internal
00:15:53 --> 00:15:56 heat dynamics, they found that 98% of
00:15:56 --> 00:15:59 sub Neptune exoplanets fall above
00:15:59 --> 00:16:01 this shoreline. That means they receive
00:16:01 --> 00:16:03 enough stellar energy to keep their interiors
00:16:03 --> 00:16:06 hot and molten, rather than allowing them to
00:16:06 --> 00:16:07 cool into solid bodies.
00:16:08 --> 00:16:11 Avery: For astrobiologists and exoplanet hunters,
00:16:11 --> 00:16:13 the implications are significant. The
00:16:13 --> 00:16:16 Hycean world hypothesis had offered an
00:16:16 --> 00:16:19 enticing planets that might host life
00:16:19 --> 00:16:22 in vast subsurface oceans protected by thick
00:16:22 --> 00:16:24 atmospheres. This new research suggests that
00:16:24 --> 00:16:26 vision may have been premature.
00:16:27 --> 00:16:29 Anna: It's important to note that this doesn't
00:16:29 --> 00:16:32 close the door on water worlds altogether. It
00:16:32 --> 00:16:34 simply urges caution against over
00:16:34 --> 00:16:36 interpretation and reminds us that planetary
00:16:36 --> 00:16:39 evolution can take multiple paths. As
00:16:39 --> 00:16:42 Calver and his team make clear, the lack of
00:16:42 --> 00:16:44 reliable atmospheric mass data across many
00:16:44 --> 00:16:47 exoplanets limits current models.
00:16:47 --> 00:16:49 Avery: While this conclusion might seem like a
00:16:49 --> 00:16:52 setback, it actually offers a more stable
00:16:52 --> 00:16:55 foundation for future research. It's better
00:16:55 --> 00:16:57 to have a realistic understanding of what
00:16:57 --> 00:16:59 these planets are than to chase false hopes
00:16:59 --> 00:17:00 of habitability.
00:17:01 --> 00:17:03 Anna: Exactly. Science progresses through these
00:17:03 --> 00:17:06 kinds of corrections and refinements. We're
00:17:06 --> 00:17:08 building a more accurate picture of the
00:17:08 --> 00:17:11 cosmos, even if it means letting go of some
00:17:11 --> 00:17:12 earlier assumptions.
00:17:12 --> 00:17:14 Avery: And Anna for our final storey.
00:17:14 --> 00:17:17 Today we have something both beautiful and
00:17:17 --> 00:17:20 sobering. A glimpse into the future fate
00:17:20 --> 00:17:21 of our own sun.
00:17:22 --> 00:17:24 Anna: The James Webb Space Telescope has captured
00:17:24 --> 00:17:27 stunning new images of the Helix Nebula,
00:17:27 --> 00:17:30 one of the closest planetary nebulae to
00:17:30 --> 00:17:33 Earth. And what it reveals is absolutely
00:17:33 --> 00:17:33 breathtaking.
00:17:33 --> 00:17:36 Avery: Avery, also known as the eye of
00:17:36 --> 00:17:39 God, the Helix Nebula is located about
00:17:39 --> 00:17:41 650 light years away in the
00:17:41 --> 00:17:44 constellation Aquarius. It's the result of a
00:17:44 --> 00:17:47 sun like star that exhausted its nuclear fuel
00:17:47 --> 00:17:50 and shed its outer layers into space, leaving
00:17:50 --> 00:17:53 behind a dense core called a white dwarf.
00:17:53 --> 00:17:56 Anna: Webb's near infrared camera captured
00:17:56 --> 00:17:59 pillars of gas that look like thousands of
00:17:59 --> 00:18:01 comets with extended tails tracing the
00:18:01 --> 00:18:04 circumference of an expanding shell of gas.
00:18:04 --> 00:18:07 These structures form when BLISTERING winds
00:18:07 --> 00:18:09 of hot moving gas from the dying star
00:18:10 --> 00:18:13 crash into slower moving colder shells
00:18:13 --> 00:18:15 of dust and gas that were shed earlier in the
00:18:15 --> 00:18:16 star's life.
00:18:17 --> 00:18:19 Avery: What makes Webb's view so special is the
00:18:19 --> 00:18:22 level of detail it reveals. The image shows
00:18:22 --> 00:18:24 the stark transition between different
00:18:24 --> 00:18:27 temperature hot ionised gas near
00:18:27 --> 00:18:30 the centre where the white dwarf sits, cooler
00:18:30 --> 00:18:32 molecular hydrogen farther out and
00:18:32 --> 00:18:34 protective pockets where more complex
00:18:34 --> 00:18:37 molecules can begin to form within dust
00:18:37 --> 00:18:37 clouds.
00:18:38 --> 00:18:40 Anna: The colour in the image represents
00:18:40 --> 00:18:42 temperature and chemistry. Blue marks the
00:18:42 --> 00:18:44 hottest gas being blasted by the white
00:18:44 --> 00:18:47 dwarf's radiation. Yellow regions show
00:18:47 --> 00:18:50 gas that's cooled as it moves away from the
00:18:50 --> 00:18:52 white dwarf. And the coolest material at the
00:18:52 --> 00:18:54 edge of the nebula appears red.
00:18:54 --> 00:18:57 Avery: This isn't just a pretty picture. It's
00:18:57 --> 00:18:59 showing us stellar recycling in action.
00:18:59 --> 00:19:02 The gas and dust being expelled don't
00:19:02 --> 00:19:04 disappear. They're incorporated into the
00:19:04 --> 00:19:07 interstellar medium, enriching clouds with
00:19:07 --> 00:19:09 heavy elements forged in the stellar
00:19:09 --> 00:19:12 interior. This is the raw material from
00:19:12 --> 00:19:14 which new stars and planets will eventually
00:19:14 --> 00:19:14 form.
00:19:15 --> 00:19:18 Anna: According to NASA, this image is essentially
00:19:18 --> 00:19:20 a window into our own Future. In about
00:19:20 --> 00:19:23 5 billion years, our sun will enter
00:19:23 --> 00:19:26 this same phase, creating a similar nebula
00:19:26 --> 00:19:28 as it fades into a white dwarf.
00:19:28 --> 00:19:31 Avery: The Helix Nebula has been imaged many times
00:19:31 --> 00:19:33 over the nearly two centuries since it was
00:19:33 --> 00:19:36 discovered by both ground based and space
00:19:36 --> 00:19:38 based observatories. But Webb's near
00:19:38 --> 00:19:41 infrared view brings unprecedented detail,
00:19:42 --> 00:19:44 revealing structures that were invisible to
00:19:44 --> 00:19:45 previous telescopes.
00:19:46 --> 00:19:48 Anna: Scientists can use these detailed
00:19:48 --> 00:19:51 observations to refine their understanding of
00:19:51 --> 00:19:54 stellar evolution, how stars end their lives
00:19:54 --> 00:19:56 and how they distribute the elements they've
00:19:56 --> 00:19:59 created back into the galaxy. Every
00:19:59 --> 00:20:02 shell of gas represents a different episode
00:20:02 --> 00:20:04 of mass loss, creating a timeline of the
00:20:04 --> 00:20:05 star's final stages.
00:20:06 --> 00:20:08 Avery: It's a powerful reminder that even in death,
00:20:09 --> 00:20:11 stars continue to shape the universe. The
00:20:11 --> 00:20:14 atoms that will one day form new worlds,
00:20:14 --> 00:20:17 perhaps even new life, are being forged and
00:20:17 --> 00:20:20 distributed in nebulae like this right now.
00:20:20 --> 00:20:23 Anna: It's both humbling and inspiring to see
00:20:23 --> 00:20:25 our cosmic future laid out so clearly.
00:20:26 --> 00:20:28 The Helix Nebula shows us that endings in
00:20:28 --> 00:20:31 space can be as magnificent as beginnings.
00:20:32 --> 00:20:34 Avery: And that wraps up today's journey through the
00:20:34 --> 00:20:37 cosmos. From terraforming dreams to
00:20:37 --> 00:20:39 atmospheric water harvesting on Mars, from
00:20:40 --> 00:20:42 from X ray catalogues mapping millions of
00:20:42 --> 00:20:45 cosmic sources to earthquake sensors tracking
00:20:45 --> 00:20:48 falling satellites, we've covered incredible
00:20:48 --> 00:20:48 ground today.
00:20:49 --> 00:20:51 Anna: We've also learned to be more cautious about
00:20:51 --> 00:20:54 those exciting water world discoveries and
00:20:54 --> 00:20:57 witnessed the beautiful death of a sun like
00:20:57 --> 00:20:59 star through Webb's remarkable eyes.
00:20:59 --> 00:21:02 It's been quite a day in space in astronomy
00:21:02 --> 00:21:02 news.
00:21:02 --> 00:21:04 Avery: Thanks for joining us on Astronomy Daily.
00:21:05 --> 00:21:06 Remember, you can find us at
00:21:06 --> 00:21:09 astronomydaily.IO for all our
00:21:09 --> 00:21:11 episodes, show notes and more.
00:21:12 --> 00:21:14 Anna: And don't forget to follow us on social
00:21:14 --> 00:21:17 media. Astrodaily Pod we
00:21:17 --> 00:21:19 love hearing from our listeners about what
00:21:19 --> 00:21:21 storeys excite you most.
00:21:21 --> 00:21:24 Avery: Until next time, keep looking up clear
00:21:24 --> 00:21:24 skies everyone.
00:21:34 --> 00:21:34 Mhm.
00:21:37 --> 00:21:48 Sam.