Source:
https://www.spreaker.com/episode/445-snowball-earth-theories-dinosaur-asteroid-origins-and-the-hubble-tension-resolved--61114230
Hi there. Thanks for joining us on another episode of Space Nuts. Andrew Dunkley here and it's good to have your company. Coming up on this episode we're going to be looking at snowball Earth. There was a time where it was just a frozen sphere of nothingness for, well, billions of years. Now they have a new theory about that and it's no Irish joke. There's a clue in there. The dinosaur asteroid's origin has been revealed. Yep. The thing that started the getting rid of them all across the planet. We know where it came from. And the so-called crisis in cosmology might not be a crisis at all. We're talking about the Hubble tension. We'll talk about all of that on this episode of Space Nuts.
Chapters
- Snowball Earth: Discover the new theory about Earth's frozen past and the rocks in Scotland and Australia that provide clues.
- - Dinosaur Asteroid's Origin: Learn about the new study revealing the origin of the asteroid that led to the extinction of the dinosaurs.
- - Crisis in Cosmology: Delve into the Hubble tension and why it might not be a crisis after all.
- - Chinese High-Speed Engine: Explore the claims of a new Chinese engine that could revolutionise air travel with speeds up to 19,700 km/h.
- For more Space Nuts, including our continually updating newsfeed, visit our website at https://www.spacenuts.io. Follow us on social media at SpaceNutsPod on facebook, X, YouTubeMusic, and TikTok. We love engaging with our community, so be sure to drop us a message or comment on your favourite platform.
- For more Space and Astronomy News Podcasts, visit our HQ at https://www.bitesz.com.
- Become a supporter of this podcast: https://www.spreaker.com/podcast/space-nuts/support.
- Stay curious, keep looking up, and join us next time for more stellar insights and cosmic wonders. Until then, clear skies and happy stargazing.
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00:00:00 --> 00:00:01 hi there thanks for joining us on
00:00:01 --> 00:00:03 another episode of Space Nuts Andrew
00:00:03 --> 00:00:05 Dunley here and it's good to have you
00:00:05 --> 00:00:08 all company coming up on this episode
00:00:08 --> 00:00:10 we're going to be looking at snowball
00:00:10 --> 00:00:13 Earth there was a time where it was just
00:00:13 --> 00:00:16 a frozen sphere of nothingness for well
00:00:17 --> 00:00:19 billions of years uh now they have a new
00:00:19 --> 00:00:22 theory about that and it's no Irish
00:00:22 --> 00:00:25 joke there's a clue in there uh the
00:00:25 --> 00:00:27 dinosaur asteroids origin has been
00:00:28 --> 00:00:30 revealed yep the thing that started
00:00:30 --> 00:00:33 the getting rid of them all across the
00:00:33 --> 00:00:36 planet we know where it came from and uh
00:00:36 --> 00:00:38 the so-called crisis in cosmology might
00:00:38 --> 00:00:40 not be a crisis at all we're talking
00:00:40 --> 00:00:42 about the Hubble tension we'll talk
00:00:42 --> 00:00:45 about all of that on this episode of
00:00:45 --> 00:00:48 Space Nuts 15 seconds guidance is
00:00:48 --> 00:00:53 internal 10 9 ignition sequence start
00:00:53 --> 00:00:59 Space Nuts 5 4 3 2 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1
00:00:59 --> 00:01:00 space
00:01:00 --> 00:01:04 as report feels good and to help us
00:01:04 --> 00:01:08 unravel all of that decipher it and use
00:01:08 --> 00:01:09 his code book to figure a few more
00:01:09 --> 00:01:11 things out is Professor Fred Watson
00:01:12 --> 00:01:14 astronomer at large hello Fred hello
00:01:14 --> 00:01:16 Andrew keep up the good work there it's
00:01:16 --> 00:01:18 going very
00:01:18 --> 00:01:21 well uh good to see you uh I I just I
00:01:21 --> 00:01:23 thought I'd sort of start out a left
00:01:23 --> 00:01:27 field because um I I spotted a story uh
00:01:27 --> 00:01:31 only today actually uh which dovetails
00:01:31 --> 00:01:32 with something we talked about some time
00:01:32 --> 00:01:34 ago and and that was the work that's
00:01:35 --> 00:01:38 being done to perfect uh engine
00:01:38 --> 00:01:41 technology to achieve greater speeds uh
00:01:41 --> 00:01:44 for Interstellar travel in years to come
00:01:44 --> 00:01:46 or maybe not Interstellar but
00:01:46 --> 00:01:48 interplanetary perhaps and we know NASA
00:01:49 --> 00:01:51 is is working on this kind of technology
00:01:51 --> 00:01:54 to to create uh
00:01:54 --> 00:01:58 really fast and high performance engines
00:01:58 --> 00:02:00 they're working with I think it's enal
00:02:00 --> 00:02:02 electric to achieve that uh they may
00:02:02 --> 00:02:04 have been gazumped fret have you heard
00:02:04 --> 00:02:05 about
00:02:05 --> 00:02:07 this uh
00:02:07 --> 00:02:11 no uh the Chinese the Chinese claim to
00:02:11 --> 00:02:15 have developed a a new engine that can
00:02:15 --> 00:02:18 achieve a speed of
00:02:18 --> 00:02:23 12 mil hour or 19 km an hour and
00:02:23 --> 00:02:25 uh the aircraft can reach an altitude of
00:02:25 --> 00:02:28 30 kilm now you compare that to the
00:02:28 --> 00:02:34 Concord uh it's uh Mac 16 versus MAC 2
00:02:34 --> 00:02:37 uh which is an extraordinary claim now
00:02:37 --> 00:02:39 apparently they've released a paper
00:02:39 --> 00:02:41 which has been peer-reviewed from what I
00:02:41 --> 00:02:44 understand um and it's not April the 1st
00:02:44 --> 00:02:47 I'm confident of that so they reckon
00:02:47 --> 00:02:50 that they've they've made this leap in
00:02:50 --> 00:02:55 technology to develop a Max 16 engine
00:02:55 --> 00:02:57 and just think of this Fred you'd be
00:02:57 --> 00:03:00 able to fly from Sydney to New York talk
00:03:00 --> 00:03:05 in 50 minutes yes that's what 50
00:03:05 --> 00:03:08 minutes uh that's extraordinary if it if
00:03:08 --> 00:03:10 it's real and I I don't see why it
00:03:10 --> 00:03:12 wouldn't be but you never know with
00:03:12 --> 00:03:15 these things but um apparently according
00:03:15 --> 00:03:17 to the paper the engine operates in two
00:03:17 --> 00:03:18 modes there's a continuous rotating
00:03:18 --> 00:03:20 detonation engine which is a scary thing
00:03:21 --> 00:03:22 in itself by the sound of it which will
00:03:22 --> 00:03:25 get it to Mark 7even and uh you know the
00:03:25 --> 00:03:27 air and the fuel create a rotating shock
00:03:27 --> 00:03:30 wave with continuous thrust and then a
00:03:30 --> 00:03:34 straight line oblique detonation engine
00:03:34 --> 00:03:37 which fires above Mark 7 and pushes it
00:03:37 --> 00:03:38 all the way to Mark
00:03:38 --> 00:03:43 16 um it sounds amazing sounds amazing
00:03:43 --> 00:03:46 uh how far short they are of getting
00:03:46 --> 00:03:48 this into production I don't know but um
00:03:48 --> 00:03:50 it certainly sounds like it's in
00:03:50 --> 00:03:53 development that would be amazing to to
00:03:53 --> 00:03:55 be able to achieve those kinds of speeds
00:03:56 --> 00:03:58 uh it would revolutionize travel around
00:03:58 --> 00:03:58 the
00:03:58 --> 00:04:01 world but it's been done
00:04:01 --> 00:04:05 already by yeah the British have been
00:04:05 --> 00:04:09 working on this for decades now with
00:04:09 --> 00:04:12 their air it's an air breathing um it's
00:04:12 --> 00:04:16 a Hybrid engine that breathes Air at it
00:04:16 --> 00:04:18 at at low altitudes and turns into a
00:04:18 --> 00:04:20 rocket motor when you get above the
00:04:20 --> 00:04:22 Earth's atmosphere yeah I think I did
00:04:22 --> 00:04:23 hear about that I didn't know i' got to
00:04:23 --> 00:04:26 those sort of speeds yeah well it can
00:04:26 --> 00:04:28 it's capable of entering orbit so it can
00:04:28 --> 00:04:31 get up to you know 20 6 km an hour
00:04:31 --> 00:04:33 but but but it's then acting as a rocket
00:04:33 --> 00:04:37 motor so it's um the project was called
00:04:37 --> 00:04:39 well hotol was the style of thing
00:04:39 --> 00:04:42 horizontal takeoff and Landing um so
00:04:42 --> 00:04:44 it's flies like a plane takes off like a
00:04:44 --> 00:04:47 plane with the air burning jet engines
00:04:47 --> 00:04:50 just gradually accelerates uh clicks
00:04:50 --> 00:04:55 over into being a um a rocket motor uh
00:04:55 --> 00:04:57 when the atmosphere gets too rarified
00:04:57 --> 00:05:00 and then sends you up to orbit uh but
00:05:00 --> 00:05:02 the as I remember right I think it's
00:05:02 --> 00:05:03 called the saber the engine if I
00:05:03 --> 00:05:06 remember rightly it's saber but the big
00:05:06 --> 00:05:11 problem was um keeping the air cool and
00:05:11 --> 00:05:14 there was some the main breakthrough was
00:05:14 --> 00:05:16 apparently a heat exchanger that could
00:05:16 --> 00:05:19 bring the temperature of the air uh down
00:05:19 --> 00:05:23 from 700° cius or something to liquid
00:05:23 --> 00:05:25 nitrogen temperatures in something like
00:05:25 --> 00:05:27 a thousandth of a second as it passes
00:05:27 --> 00:05:30 through the engine um and was a big
00:05:30 --> 00:05:31 breakthrough now we've I think we've
00:05:31 --> 00:05:33 spoken about it before a long long time
00:05:33 --> 00:05:34 ago because there hasn't really been
00:05:34 --> 00:05:36 much news it was being supported by the
00:05:36 --> 00:05:38 British government I don't know whether
00:05:38 --> 00:05:41 that support has has now dwindled um
00:05:42 --> 00:05:43 because it would be you know the idea
00:05:43 --> 00:05:45 about this was economics it was to be
00:05:45 --> 00:05:47 able to have the same Spa spacecraft
00:05:47 --> 00:05:48 that will take you up there and bring
00:05:48 --> 00:05:51 you back and was completely reusable and
00:05:51 --> 00:05:54 to some extent I think um uh Elon musk's
00:05:54 --> 00:05:57 basx and their Falcon 9es have kind of
00:05:57 --> 00:05:58 cornered the market on that because
00:05:58 --> 00:06:00 they've they've now got reusable
00:06:00 --> 00:06:02 spacecraft which are routinely being
00:06:02 --> 00:06:05 used every day uh almost so maybe
00:06:05 --> 00:06:08 there's no space for it but yeah
00:06:08 --> 00:06:09 extraordinary technology and and I'm
00:06:10 --> 00:06:12 sure the Chinese technology is is above
00:06:12 --> 00:06:14 board what you've just been describing
00:06:14 --> 00:06:15 yeah it's from the Beijing Power
00:06:15 --> 00:06:17 Machinery Institute and theyve published
00:06:17 --> 00:06:20 their paper in the Chinese Journal of
00:06:20 --> 00:06:22 propulsion technology I can I can see a
00:06:22 --> 00:06:24 problem with it though let's say they do
00:06:24 --> 00:06:26 create an airliner that can do that trip
00:06:27 --> 00:06:29 in 50 minutes from New York to Sydney
00:06:29 --> 00:06:30 for example
00:06:30 --> 00:06:31 you'd leave at 7:00 in the morning in
00:06:31 --> 00:06:34 New York you'd arrive at 11:00 p.m. 50
00:06:34 --> 00:06:38 minutes later in Sydney so you'd get up
00:06:38 --> 00:06:40 and get on the plane then get to Sydney
00:06:40 --> 00:06:43 and then have to go to bed right away
00:06:43 --> 00:06:45 yes that's right that's the issue it's
00:06:46 --> 00:06:48 always the issue it would make jet lag
00:06:48 --> 00:06:51 all the more worse but you know I think
00:06:51 --> 00:06:54 I'd put up with that rather than all
00:06:54 --> 00:06:58 those 20 hours 20 hour flight yeah I've
00:06:58 --> 00:06:59 got one of those coming up very soon
00:06:59 --> 00:07:03 actually you do that's right yeah be
00:07:03 --> 00:07:04 yeah to watch this space story but I
00:07:04 --> 00:07:06 just find it fascinating these these
00:07:06 --> 00:07:08 kinds of um leaps in
00:07:08 --> 00:07:11 technology let's move on uh a new theory
00:07:11 --> 00:07:14 about snowball Earth Fred I said there's
00:07:15 --> 00:07:16 um there's no Irish joke attached to
00:07:16 --> 00:07:19 this and there was a good reason I said
00:07:19 --> 00:07:21 that which I'm probably going to
00:07:21 --> 00:07:24 sidestep completely uh it's about rocks
00:07:24 --> 00:07:26 in Scotland and in
00:07:26 --> 00:07:28 Australia I thought it was I thought
00:07:28 --> 00:07:29 they said there was some of these rocks
00:07:29 --> 00:07:31 in Ireland as well yeah I think I think
00:07:31 --> 00:07:34 there are I think that's right think we
00:07:34 --> 00:07:36 that's the loose connection I made
00:07:36 --> 00:07:40 with um it it also includes rocks in
00:07:40 --> 00:07:44 Namibia uh and North America uh as well
00:07:44 --> 00:07:46 as uh Scotland uh you're probably right
00:07:46 --> 00:07:49 Ireland in Ireland because um the it's
00:07:49 --> 00:07:50 the west of Scotland where these where
00:07:50 --> 00:07:53 these rocks are that have recently been
00:07:53 --> 00:07:56 analyzed uh and I mean it's an
00:07:56 --> 00:07:57 interesting story I've often wondered
00:07:57 --> 00:07:59 about snowball Earth and never really
00:07:59 --> 00:08:02 looked at at the details of it so it's a
00:08:02 --> 00:08:06 period of about 60 million years ago oh
00:08:06 --> 00:08:10 sorry 60 million years long but it was a
00:08:10 --> 00:08:13 long time ago it began 700 million years
00:08:13 --> 00:08:16 ago uh in fact probably more like 720
00:08:16 --> 00:08:19 million years ago and lasted until about
00:08:19 --> 00:08:22 635 million years ago and it's called
00:08:22 --> 00:08:25 the cryogenian cryogenian geological
00:08:25 --> 00:08:27 period and anything with cryo in the
00:08:27 --> 00:08:30 front of it means it's frozen solid yeah
00:08:30 --> 00:08:33 uh and so um and so I thought well how
00:08:33 --> 00:08:37 do we know this and the way we know
00:08:37 --> 00:08:40 it and the way we know that I glacial
00:08:40 --> 00:08:44 ice covered the whole planet is because
00:08:44 --> 00:08:47 you can see in the geology the effects
00:08:47 --> 00:08:48 of
00:08:48 --> 00:08:51 glaciation uh everywhere it's not just
00:08:51 --> 00:08:54 you know I grew up in a country where
00:08:54 --> 00:08:56 10 years ago the whole of the
00:08:56 --> 00:08:58 northern part of Britain was under ice
00:08:58 --> 00:09:00 and so my all my school lessons were
00:09:00 --> 00:09:03 about glacial features uh in the north
00:09:03 --> 00:09:07 of England and so so you could tell from
00:09:07 --> 00:09:10 rocks uh whether something has been
00:09:10 --> 00:09:12 glaciated and that's how we know
00:09:12 --> 00:09:15 everywhere there is this layer of rock
00:09:15 --> 00:09:17 uh corresponding to looking back you
00:09:17 --> 00:09:21 know six six 700 million years where you
00:09:21 --> 00:09:23 see the evidence of glaciation um and so
00:09:24 --> 00:09:27 the interpretation of that is that you
00:09:27 --> 00:09:30 uh you had an Ice Age that would was the
00:09:30 --> 00:09:32 if I put it the the grandfather of all
00:09:32 --> 00:09:36 ice ages uh the whole planet was frozen
00:09:36 --> 00:09:39 uh and so the the new research concerns
00:09:39 --> 00:09:42 uh evidence from rocks in Scotland uh
00:09:42 --> 00:09:46 and what's remarkable is that uh the
00:09:46 --> 00:09:49 sort of gla the glacial evidence there
00:09:49 --> 00:09:52 shows up really clearly uh for some
00:09:52 --> 00:09:55 reason that has been preserved very well
00:09:55 --> 00:09:57 uh there you know underneath the
00:09:57 --> 00:09:58 sediments that were dropped on top of
00:09:59 --> 00:10:03 onp top of it um later on but um the
00:10:03 --> 00:10:07 bottom line about the uh the reason why
00:10:07 --> 00:10:11 we got this ice age is a is a question
00:10:11 --> 00:10:12 um I'm not sure that in the article I
00:10:13 --> 00:10:15 sent you it's it goes into detail about
00:10:15 --> 00:10:18 it uh but the thinking is that we were
00:10:18 --> 00:10:23 seeing a period when um or before this
00:10:23 --> 00:10:25 period uh we were seeing a
00:10:25 --> 00:10:31 time when uh volcanic rocks were being
00:10:31 --> 00:10:33 were being uh eroded they were being
00:10:33 --> 00:10:36 weathered very rapidly and apparently
00:10:36 --> 00:10:38 these were particularly in Canada uh
00:10:38 --> 00:10:40 these volcanic rocks I'm Looking Back
00:10:40 --> 00:10:44 Now perhaps 720 million years um they
00:10:44 --> 00:10:48 were eroded by weathering and that
00:10:48 --> 00:10:51 process sucks carbon dioxide out of the
00:10:51 --> 00:10:54 atmosphere uh and so um what you're
00:10:54 --> 00:10:57 seeing is a situation where the
00:10:57 --> 00:11:01 atmospheric carbon dioxide is lower uh
00:11:01 --> 00:11:04 than normal and in fact uh it is
00:11:04 --> 00:11:07 probably was probably about half uh what
00:11:07 --> 00:11:10 today's level is today's level's in the
00:11:10 --> 00:11:12 region of 400 parts per million of
00:11:12 --> 00:11:14 carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and
00:11:14 --> 00:11:16 that's enough to blanket our planet and
00:11:16 --> 00:11:18 keep the temperature stable uh unless
00:11:18 --> 00:11:20 you put more in in which case the
00:11:20 --> 00:11:22 temperature goes up as you know uh but
00:11:22 --> 00:11:25 uh if you drop too far down uh then you
00:11:26 --> 00:11:29 get an ice ball um they estimate the
00:11:29 --> 00:11:33 atmospheric carbon dioxide levels uh
00:11:33 --> 00:11:35 back in the cryogenic period or
00:11:35 --> 00:11:39 cryogenian period uh they estimate they
00:11:39 --> 00:11:41 were below 200 parts per million and
00:11:41 --> 00:11:43 what that does is lets the heat just
00:11:43 --> 00:11:46 radiate out into the uh into space and
00:11:46 --> 00:11:48 you lose heat the Earth's surface
00:11:48 --> 00:11:51 becomes very cold uh and uh basically
00:11:51 --> 00:11:53 you get the snowball Earth you get an
00:11:53 --> 00:11:57 earth that is covered with ice um the
00:11:57 --> 00:11:58 it's the same sort of thing that we
00:11:58 --> 00:11:59 think happened of Mars as very low
00:12:00 --> 00:12:02 carbon dioxide content and that's why we
00:12:02 --> 00:12:04 think it got cold and dry rather than
00:12:04 --> 00:12:06 warm and white as it once
00:12:06 --> 00:12:08 was the other there's a lot of moving
00:12:08 --> 00:12:10 parts to this story but uh one of the
00:12:10 --> 00:12:14 things I found most interesting was if
00:12:14 --> 00:12:18 this Mega freeze hadn't happened Life as
00:12:18 --> 00:12:21 we know it may not have developed
00:12:21 --> 00:12:23 because up until this time it was just
00:12:23 --> 00:12:27 microbial just that was it um that's
00:12:27 --> 00:12:30 that's correct um so uh and the thinking
00:12:30 --> 00:12:31 yes it was it was single- celled
00:12:31 --> 00:12:34 organisms until that time and they they
00:12:34 --> 00:12:36 were around for you know three billion
00:12:36 --> 00:12:39 years or so um that that nothing
00:12:39 --> 00:12:40 happened except these single cell
00:12:41 --> 00:12:44 organisms uh principally C bacteria they
00:12:44 --> 00:12:46 just did their thing and got on with
00:12:46 --> 00:12:49 life but didn't evolve in any way uh but
00:12:49 --> 00:12:53 the end this this end of the glacial
00:12:53 --> 00:12:57 period was such a sort of Rapid climate
00:12:57 --> 00:13:00 change by the standard of the of the
00:13:00 --> 00:13:02 time by geological standards that the
00:13:02 --> 00:13:05 thinking is that you'd got a almost an
00:13:05 --> 00:13:11 arms race uh to adapt um to to to to
00:13:11 --> 00:13:14 this new situation where the microbes
00:13:14 --> 00:13:16 are not permanently in deep freeze
00:13:16 --> 00:13:18 you've got a warming climate and the and
00:13:18 --> 00:13:21 the evolution of the microbes kicks in
00:13:21 --> 00:13:23 at a much higher level than it was
00:13:23 --> 00:13:26 before and that is where uh we think
00:13:26 --> 00:13:28 that the multicell organism started to
00:13:28 --> 00:13:29 be
00:13:29 --> 00:13:32 and that's what are the ancestors of all
00:13:32 --> 00:13:34 the animals that we see today Yeah so
00:13:34 --> 00:13:37 basically those who survived the Thor or
00:13:37 --> 00:13:40 adapted to it uh created Life as we know
00:13:40 --> 00:13:44 it yeah that's just extraordinary um
00:13:44 --> 00:13:47 sort of factor to come out of it the
00:13:47 --> 00:13:49 other thing I and I correct me if I'm
00:13:49 --> 00:13:51 wrong but these rocks we were talking
00:13:51 --> 00:13:53 about in Ireland and Scotland and
00:13:53 --> 00:13:57 Australia and everywhere else uh the
00:13:57 --> 00:13:59 reason that these are so different is I
00:13:59 --> 00:14:01 believe these were rocks that actually
00:14:01 --> 00:14:05 stuck out of the ice is that
00:14:05 --> 00:14:09 correct during yes they may have done or
00:14:09 --> 00:14:13 or at least been subject to less glacial
00:14:13 --> 00:14:16 activity so yes they they they may have
00:14:16 --> 00:14:18 you know had only a thin layer of ice
00:14:18 --> 00:14:19 over them rather than be under
00:14:19 --> 00:14:23 kilometers of ice um so I think you're
00:14:23 --> 00:14:25 right there and and and just to to
00:14:25 --> 00:14:27 confirm you're quite right that some of
00:14:27 --> 00:14:29 these rocks are in Ireland as well
00:14:29 --> 00:14:31 uh I hadn't spotted that Andrew in my
00:14:31 --> 00:14:34 reading of the paper uh but yes so
00:14:34 --> 00:14:39 you've got um uh particularly you've got
00:14:39 --> 00:14:42 uh these rocks on some of the Scottish
00:14:42 --> 00:14:43 islands there these are small islands
00:14:44 --> 00:14:47 called the gav uh and it's um basically
00:14:47 --> 00:14:51 in the west of Scotland uh it's under
00:14:51 --> 00:14:53 the portas formation this is a
00:14:54 --> 00:14:56 geological area poas very well known to
00:14:56 --> 00:14:57 Scots people because it's the name of a
00:14:57 --> 00:15:00 well-known pipe tune um so let me quote
00:15:00 --> 00:15:03 from one of the authors of this work um
00:15:03 --> 00:15:07 and he's he's actually a PhD candidate
00:15:07 --> 00:15:11 at the univers University College London
00:15:11 --> 00:15:13 the layers of rocks Exposed on the
00:15:13 --> 00:15:16 garelic are globally unique underneath
00:15:16 --> 00:15:18 the Rocks laid down during the
00:15:18 --> 00:15:21 unimaginable cold of the glaciation a 70
00:15:21 --> 00:15:24 M of older carbonate rocks formed in
00:15:24 --> 00:15:27 tropical waters these layers record a
00:15:27 --> 00:15:29 tropical marine environment with
00:15:29 --> 00:15:31 flourishing s of bacterial life that
00:15:31 --> 00:15:33 gradually became cooler marking the end
00:15:33 --> 00:15:35 of a billion years or so of a temperate
00:15:35 --> 00:15:38 climate on Earth um most areas of the
00:15:38 --> 00:15:40 world are missing this remarkable
00:15:40 --> 00:15:43 transition because the ancient glaciers
00:15:43 --> 00:15:45 scraped and eroded the way the Rocks
00:15:45 --> 00:15:47 underneath but in Scotland by some
00:15:47 --> 00:15:49 miracle the transition can be seen and I
00:15:49 --> 00:15:51 think that's underlining what you said
00:15:51 --> 00:15:52 they were either sticking up through the
00:15:53 --> 00:15:55 ice or they weren't particularly deeply
00:15:55 --> 00:15:58 covered by ice so it's minerals and uh
00:15:59 --> 00:16:01 radiometric dating of the minerals that
00:16:01 --> 00:16:04 have allowed this discovery to to to be
00:16:04 --> 00:16:07 made yeah it's incredible isn't it uh
00:16:07 --> 00:16:08 all the answers are right there in front
00:16:08 --> 00:16:11 of us in the dirt sometimes simple as
00:16:11 --> 00:16:14 that yeah that's how we it's we know so
00:16:14 --> 00:16:17 much about the history of not just our
00:16:17 --> 00:16:19 planet but the you know the the other
00:16:19 --> 00:16:21 planets of the solar system just learned
00:16:21 --> 00:16:23 from looking at the Rocks that's right
00:16:23 --> 00:16:26 yeah fantastic uh if you'd like to read
00:16:26 --> 00:16:29 the article or chase up that story it's
00:16:29 --> 00:16:31 uh on the cosmos
00:16:31 --> 00:16:33 magazine.com website this is Space Nuts
00:16:33 --> 00:16:39 Andrew Dunley here with Professor Brad
00:16:39 --> 00:16:42 Watson also Space Nuts uh speaking of
00:16:42 --> 00:16:45 dirt Fred uh we've got we've got the
00:16:45 --> 00:16:49 dirt on the dinosaur asteroid we uh uh
00:16:49 --> 00:16:51 we now know thanks to a new study where
00:16:51 --> 00:16:55 it came from this is fascinating too it
00:16:55 --> 00:16:57 is that's right uh and you know it's not
00:16:57 --> 00:16:59 that long ago that people people were
00:16:59 --> 00:17:01 really still speculating about where the
00:17:01 --> 00:17:05 remnants of this asteroid was uh we're
00:17:05 --> 00:17:07 now pretty certain that uh it's in the
00:17:07 --> 00:17:11 chickalo ba Basin in the Gulf of Mexico
00:17:11 --> 00:17:15 that that is the uh the site which uh
00:17:15 --> 00:17:17 actually was the impact site of this
00:17:17 --> 00:17:20 asteroid so what you can do is you can
00:17:20 --> 00:17:23 look at the the Rocks um that you find
00:17:23 --> 00:17:25 in that region once again we're looking
00:17:25 --> 00:17:29 down at the dirt and um but basically
00:17:29 --> 00:17:32 look to see whether we know of anything
00:17:32 --> 00:17:36 like it out there in the solar system um
00:17:36 --> 00:17:37 and
00:17:37 --> 00:17:42 the bottom line is that yes we do find
00:17:42 --> 00:17:45 that uh in in particular and this is
00:17:45 --> 00:17:47 work being done at the University of
00:17:47 --> 00:17:53 cologne in Germany um the uh the element
00:17:53 --> 00:17:57 ruthenium um is basically a chemical
00:17:57 --> 00:17:59 marker if I can put it that way W that
00:18:00 --> 00:18:03 is found in the debris around the chick
00:18:03 --> 00:18:06 salum impactor and apparently in other
00:18:06 --> 00:18:08 sediment around the world because the
00:18:08 --> 00:18:10 debris from that explosion spread all
00:18:10 --> 00:18:12 around the world it was so you know such
00:18:12 --> 00:18:17 a uh such a a major piece of uh piece of
00:18:17 --> 00:18:21 explosive material it was only explosive
00:18:21 --> 00:18:22 because it hit the ground at a very high
00:18:22 --> 00:18:25 speed probably 30 or 40 kilometers per
00:18:25 --> 00:18:28 second um but the the fingerprint of
00:18:28 --> 00:18:31 ruini has been found in that debris and
00:18:31 --> 00:18:34 it turns out that that
00:18:34 --> 00:18:38 coincides with rocks in the the main
00:18:38 --> 00:18:41 asteroid belt that's the region between
00:18:41 --> 00:18:45 Mars and Jupiter but at the outer edge
00:18:45 --> 00:18:48 uh outer edge of the main asteroid belt
00:18:48 --> 00:18:50 not sort of not the kind of place you'd
00:18:50 --> 00:18:52 expect you would think if the if that
00:18:52 --> 00:18:54 rock could come from uh the asteroid
00:18:54 --> 00:18:56 belt you'd think it would be the near
00:18:56 --> 00:18:58 the inner Edge but the chemical um
00:18:58 --> 00:19:00 specifics tell you that it's actually at
00:19:00 --> 00:19:05 the outer age uh and um that is really
00:19:05 --> 00:19:08 very very interesting deduction uh who
00:19:08 --> 00:19:10 would have thought that we we were be
00:19:10 --> 00:19:12 able to pinpoint where that asteroid
00:19:12 --> 00:19:14 came from uh 66 million years after the
00:19:15 --> 00:19:18 event uh and um maybe
00:19:18 --> 00:19:20 the yeah I guess they worked it out on
00:19:20 --> 00:19:22 the chemical composition elements rather
00:19:22 --> 00:19:23 than
00:19:23 --> 00:19:26 backtracking yes that's right um it's it
00:19:27 --> 00:19:28 we don't have enough information to
00:19:28 --> 00:19:29 backtrack track we don't know what angle
00:19:29 --> 00:19:32 it came in at or you know what its orbit
00:19:32 --> 00:19:34 was before it collided with Earth so
00:19:34 --> 00:19:36 it's it's all about chemistry is this
00:19:36 --> 00:19:40 and um and in particular some quite uh
00:19:40 --> 00:19:42 quite sophisticated well I suppose you
00:19:42 --> 00:19:44 call it chemical physics because they're
00:19:44 --> 00:19:48 using radiation techniques uh basically
00:19:48 --> 00:19:50 to to to look for these levels of
00:19:50 --> 00:19:54 ruthenium uh in in the basically in the
00:19:54 --> 00:19:58 debris from the uh from the um asteroid
00:19:58 --> 00:20:03 uh crater and and surroundings uh and um
00:20:03 --> 00:20:06 basically uh you know looking at uh how
00:20:06 --> 00:20:09 it Compares with other um asteroid
00:20:09 --> 00:20:13 impacts and carbonous meteorites which
00:20:13 --> 00:20:16 also come from that region of the of the
00:20:16 --> 00:20:17 solar
00:20:17 --> 00:20:20 system so what might have caused a rock
00:20:20 --> 00:20:23 from that particular part of the solar
00:20:23 --> 00:20:26 system to you know turn its attention to
00:20:26 --> 00:20:28 us did Saturn get upset and Chuck a rock
00:20:28 --> 00:20:30 at us or something
00:20:30 --> 00:20:34 is um it's probably uh it's it's
00:20:34 --> 00:20:39 probably um uh a a just a gravitational
00:20:39 --> 00:20:43 disturbance you know something that
00:20:43 --> 00:20:47 Disturbed the uh orbit of this asteroid
00:20:47 --> 00:20:49 in its comfortable zone of the asteroid
00:20:49 --> 00:20:51 belt maybe an interaction with another
00:20:51 --> 00:20:54 asteroid because when objects come
00:20:54 --> 00:20:56 together they needn't necessarily
00:20:56 --> 00:20:58 Collide but if they can interact with
00:20:58 --> 00:21:00 each other gravitationally so that one
00:21:00 --> 00:21:02 of them gets thrown out of of of its
00:21:02 --> 00:21:05 orbits and you know it's possible that
00:21:05 --> 00:21:07 that would have been the case it's kind
00:21:07 --> 00:21:09 of like being in a crowd at a Chinese
00:21:09 --> 00:21:10 supermarket really
00:21:10 --> 00:21:14 that's that's what it's like yes yes I
00:21:14 --> 00:21:16 you didn't want to go that way but you
00:21:16 --> 00:21:19 ended up you have to you have to go that
00:21:19 --> 00:21:21 way yeah just because everything's so
00:21:21 --> 00:21:23 crowded it's it's it's a bit like that
00:21:23 --> 00:21:27 the um um the thing is that that event
00:21:27 --> 00:21:31 whatever Ed out of its comfortable orbit
00:21:31 --> 00:21:33 that might have happened a long time
00:21:33 --> 00:21:38 before the 66 million Year date a ago uh
00:21:38 --> 00:21:40 that we for the uh for the impact for
00:21:40 --> 00:21:42 the extinction of the dinosaurs so it
00:21:42 --> 00:21:44 might have been in a in an orbit that
00:21:44 --> 00:21:46 intersected the Earth's orbit for a long
00:21:46 --> 00:21:49 long time uh before the crunch finally
00:21:49 --> 00:21:51 came when it tried to be in the same
00:21:51 --> 00:21:53 place at the same time as the Earth so
00:21:53 --> 00:21:55 yes so so we there's details for this
00:21:55 --> 00:21:58 story that we still have a long way to
00:21:58 --> 00:22:02 finding out um but it may well have been
00:22:02 --> 00:22:03 as I said it's either a collision with
00:22:03 --> 00:22:08 another asteroid or maybe even something
00:22:08 --> 00:22:10 like the gravitational pull of gas
00:22:10 --> 00:22:15 giants maybe Jupiter uh perturbed that
00:22:15 --> 00:22:16 object's orbit in such a way that it
00:22:17 --> 00:22:18 interacted with another asteroid and got
00:22:19 --> 00:22:21 got thrown out of uh thrown out of the
00:22:21 --> 00:22:23 asteroid belt we probably will never
00:22:23 --> 00:22:25 know that uh it's interesting enough I
00:22:25 --> 00:22:27 think to to discover whereabouts it came
00:22:27 --> 00:22:30 from yes the other thing that came out
00:22:30 --> 00:22:33 of this is that it all but writes off
00:22:33 --> 00:22:36 that this was a comet impact yeah um but
00:22:37 --> 00:22:38 not
00:22:38 --> 00:22:40 absolutely yeah that's right there's
00:22:40 --> 00:22:43 still uh there's still a possibility but
00:22:43 --> 00:22:45 you know comets are a different beast
00:22:45 --> 00:22:47 from from asteroids they're they contain
00:22:47 --> 00:22:50 lots of ice uh as well as The Rock and
00:22:50 --> 00:22:54 that means that the chemistry of the the
00:22:54 --> 00:22:56 residual material from the impact would
00:22:56 --> 00:22:59 have different properties uh so I think
00:22:59 --> 00:23:03 um it's you know you can never say never
00:23:03 --> 00:23:06 but the the the body of opinion seems to
00:23:06 --> 00:23:08 be that it was actually an asteroid
00:23:08 --> 00:23:11 rather than a comet yeah I do have just
00:23:11 --> 00:23:13 one more question about this story and
00:23:13 --> 00:23:15 this is the most important one for it
00:23:15 --> 00:23:19 most important you mentioned the element
00:23:19 --> 00:23:21 renum yes so was the person who
00:23:22 --> 00:23:25 discovered that named
00:23:25 --> 00:23:27 Ruth um that's a good question I'd have
00:23:27 --> 00:23:29 to take that one on noticed but my guess
00:23:29 --> 00:23:32 is that that's where the name came
00:23:32 --> 00:23:36 from maybe maybe it was somebody who was
00:23:36 --> 00:23:39 ruthless and they thought yeah I'll call
00:23:39 --> 00:23:41 it ruthenian because I'm ruthless who
00:23:41 --> 00:23:43 knows that yeah yeah that's that's a
00:23:43 --> 00:23:46 thought too uh that story if you would
00:23:46 --> 00:23:50 like to read it is available at
00:23:50 --> 00:23:53 space.com this is Space Nuts Andrew
00:23:53 --> 00:23:59 Dunley here with Professor Fred Watson
00:23:59 --> 00:24:02 and I feel fine Space Nuts uh now Fred
00:24:02 --> 00:24:05 to the so-called crisis in cosmology
00:24:05 --> 00:24:08 we're talking about uh the the Hubble
00:24:08 --> 00:24:10 tension now we've we've done this story
00:24:10 --> 00:24:13 a few times over the years this this is
00:24:13 --> 00:24:17 where the basically the expansion speed
00:24:17 --> 00:24:20 of the Universe um depending on how how
00:24:20 --> 00:24:20 you
00:24:20 --> 00:24:23 calculate uh that number comes up with
00:24:23 --> 00:24:25 two different answers and theyve never
00:24:25 --> 00:24:28 been able to figure out why but now
00:24:28 --> 00:24:29 they're starting to think well there's
00:24:30 --> 00:24:32 no crisis at all everything's
00:24:32 --> 00:24:37 right um yes so
00:24:37 --> 00:24:41 um let me just explain how this this
00:24:41 --> 00:24:43 tension the Hubble tension comes about
00:24:43 --> 00:24:45 yeah uh because there are there are two
00:24:45 --> 00:24:50 ways of of measuring uh the expansion of
00:24:50 --> 00:24:51 the
00:24:51 --> 00:24:55 universe uh one uses standard candles
00:24:55 --> 00:24:58 and the other uses a standard ruler um
00:24:58 --> 00:25:00 and put it that way so the standard
00:25:00 --> 00:25:03 candle is taking that first um if you
00:25:03 --> 00:25:05 know how bright your candle is then you
00:25:05 --> 00:25:07 can work out how far away it is from you
00:25:07 --> 00:25:10 uh because you you know you know it's
00:25:10 --> 00:25:11 real brightness it's intrinsic
00:25:11 --> 00:25:14 brightness then you can work out what's
00:25:14 --> 00:25:18 is going on uh in terms of be because we
00:25:18 --> 00:25:20 know the way light gets fainter we know
00:25:20 --> 00:25:22 the rule by which light gets fainter As
00:25:22 --> 00:25:23 you move to greater and greater
00:25:24 --> 00:25:25 distances it's what we call the inverse
00:25:25 --> 00:25:28 Square law um it goes as the square of
00:25:28 --> 00:25:29 the the distance or one over the square
00:25:29 --> 00:25:32 of the distance so uh standard candles
00:25:32 --> 00:25:36 are usually stars in
00:25:36 --> 00:25:40 galaxies uh and in fact this is what uh
00:25:40 --> 00:25:42 led us detect the expansion of the
00:25:42 --> 00:25:45 universe in the first place because u in
00:25:45 --> 00:25:47 the early years of the last century
00:25:47 --> 00:25:51 around 1900 um a group of astronomers uh
00:25:51 --> 00:25:54 in the United States measured the
00:25:54 --> 00:25:55 intrinsic brightness of a particular
00:25:55 --> 00:25:57 kind of variable star one whose
00:25:57 --> 00:25:58 brightness varies
00:25:58 --> 00:26:01 uh but it varies in a in a periodic way
00:26:01 --> 00:26:02 and it turns out that there's a
00:26:02 --> 00:26:05 relationship between how frequently it
00:26:05 --> 00:26:07 varies and what the intrinsic brightness
00:26:07 --> 00:26:09 is and you usually take it at Peak
00:26:09 --> 00:26:10 brightness or minimum brightness
00:26:10 --> 00:26:12 whichever it doesn't doesn't really
00:26:12 --> 00:26:14 matter as long as you know what it is um
00:26:14 --> 00:26:16 and so that's the time oned way of
00:26:16 --> 00:26:19 working out how far away galaxies are uh
00:26:19 --> 00:26:22 to look for these variable stars and
00:26:23 --> 00:26:27 then basically uh look at um you know
00:26:27 --> 00:26:28 how bright they look to
00:26:28 --> 00:26:31 and from that work out the distance uh
00:26:31 --> 00:26:33 and that lets you produce a value for
00:26:33 --> 00:26:35 what we call the Hubble constant which
00:26:35 --> 00:26:39 is the number that basically tells you
00:26:39 --> 00:26:42 how fast the universe is expanding uh
00:26:42 --> 00:26:44 the Hubble constant is in units of
00:26:44 --> 00:26:47 kilometers per second per megap par but
00:26:47 --> 00:26:49 we don't really need to worry about that
00:26:49 --> 00:26:50 because at the moment all we're
00:26:50 --> 00:26:52 interested in it is the number and so
00:26:52 --> 00:26:56 until now uh the best estimates uh from
00:26:56 --> 00:26:58 the standard candles in other words the
00:26:58 --> 00:27:04 seid variables have come out at about 74
00:27:04 --> 00:27:07 km/s MEAP Parc but then the standard
00:27:07 --> 00:27:10 ruler method is uh looking back at the
00:27:10 --> 00:27:11 flash of the Big Bang the cosmic
00:27:11 --> 00:27:13 microwave background radiation which we
00:27:13 --> 00:27:16 see uh as it was about 13 billion years
00:27:16 --> 00:27:19 ago and there are features in that
00:27:19 --> 00:27:23 variation which uh have separations that
00:27:23 --> 00:27:25 we know would be characteristic of a
00:27:25 --> 00:27:28 certain the T particular time and and
00:27:28 --> 00:27:29 what we're talking about here when I say
00:27:29 --> 00:27:33 features I mean Peaks and troughs in the
00:27:33 --> 00:27:34 temperature of the Big Bang effectively
00:27:34 --> 00:27:37 what you're looking at um and from that
00:27:37 --> 00:27:39 you can also deduce the Hubble constant
00:27:39 --> 00:27:43 the expansion rate as it is today uh but
00:27:43 --> 00:27:45 the answer you get from that is
00:27:45 --> 00:27:48 67.5 kilomet per second per megap par
00:27:48 --> 00:27:51 yeah which is round about 6 and a half
00:27:51 --> 00:27:53 kilometers per second per MEAP second
00:27:53 --> 00:27:55 different from the other one and that is
00:27:55 --> 00:27:58 now we're in such a precise era that now
00:27:58 --> 00:28:02 has people worried um so what's happened
00:28:02 --> 00:28:05 well the same team who've done a huge
00:28:05 --> 00:28:07 amount of this work in the past led by
00:28:07 --> 00:28:10 um Dr Wendy Freeman fredman one of the
00:28:10 --> 00:28:13 big names in this kind of Science in the
00:28:13 --> 00:28:17 United States uh Wendy and her team have
00:28:17 --> 00:28:21 used our new toy the web the James web
00:28:21 --> 00:28:22 Space
00:28:22 --> 00:28:24 Telescope we always knew it would it
00:28:24 --> 00:28:27 would solve this problem we knew it
00:28:27 --> 00:28:28 would certainly help it would either
00:28:28 --> 00:28:30 make it worse or it would solve it and
00:28:30 --> 00:28:32 yeah you're right to cut to the chase
00:28:32 --> 00:28:34 it's probably solved it because it's now
00:28:34 --> 00:28:40 looking as though the method um is more
00:28:40 --> 00:28:41 like that you know the method where you
00:28:41 --> 00:28:42 measure the brightness of these variable
00:28:42 --> 00:28:45 stars is giving an answer more like 70
00:28:45 --> 00:28:47 kilometers per second per Mega which is
00:28:47 --> 00:28:50 much closer to that 67.5 that you get
00:28:50 --> 00:28:51 from the cosmic microwave background
00:28:51 --> 00:28:54 radiation and it turns out that when you
00:28:54 --> 00:28:57 think about the the error uh potential
00:28:57 --> 00:29:00 error of both of them then it overlaps
00:29:00 --> 00:29:02 so in that regard you've got something
00:29:02 --> 00:29:04 that falls within the error bounds of
00:29:04 --> 00:29:06 both of these methods and so maybe we
00:29:06 --> 00:29:08 are seeing the right answer at last so
00:29:08 --> 00:29:11 it it basically brings it back to an
00:29:11 --> 00:29:14 average that's right both methods yeah
00:29:14 --> 00:29:16 yes yeah you know when I started my
00:29:16 --> 00:29:21 career Andrew um there were two camps uh
00:29:21 --> 00:29:23 and basically they were using similar
00:29:23 --> 00:29:27 methods uh one said that the uh Hubble
00:29:27 --> 00:29:29 constant was 50 kilm per second per Mega
00:29:29 --> 00:29:31 second the other said it was 100 kilom
00:29:32 --> 00:29:33 per second per Mega second they were
00:29:33 --> 00:29:34 both
00:29:34 --> 00:29:36 right they thought they were both right
00:29:37 --> 00:29:38 and it turned out that the the answer
00:29:38 --> 00:29:40 the real answer was the average of them
00:29:40 --> 00:29:45 70 or 75 of that there you go um pretty
00:29:45 --> 00:29:47 simple solution at the end of the day
00:29:47 --> 00:29:49 but a lot of hard work went into went
00:29:49 --> 00:29:52 into finding it we yeah we hope that's
00:29:52 --> 00:29:53 that resolves the Hubble tension it
00:29:53 --> 00:29:56 would be great hopefully Cosmic
00:29:56 --> 00:29:58 disappeared yeah yeah I wouldn't be be
00:29:58 --> 00:29:59 surprised though in months to come
00:29:59 --> 00:30:02 somebody comes up with a debunking
00:30:02 --> 00:30:05 theory well there you go it could happen
00:30:05 --> 00:30:08 it could happen but um at this point in
00:30:08 --> 00:30:10 time looks like it might have been
00:30:10 --> 00:30:12 resolved this has been frustrating for a
00:30:12 --> 00:30:15 long time but uh may may be as simple as
00:30:15 --> 00:30:18 oh hang on a sec you're both right and
00:30:18 --> 00:30:20 here's why yeah yeah yeah um that story
00:30:21 --> 00:30:24 is on sitech daily.com um question
00:30:24 --> 00:30:25 without notice Fred that's come through
00:30:25 --> 00:30:28 from one of our live viewers uh why hi
00:30:28 --> 00:30:32 Wayne um this harks back to the snowball
00:30:32 --> 00:30:35 Earth story we did uh Wayne asks so
00:30:35 --> 00:30:38 wonder how much bigger the diameter of a
00:30:38 --> 00:30:40 frozen Earth would be to the current
00:30:40 --> 00:30:42 Earth do we have any idea what that
00:30:42 --> 00:30:45 might have been yeah it probably wasn't
00:30:45 --> 00:30:49 that much different um it um you know I
00:30:49 --> 00:30:52 mean at the moment a lot of that water's
00:30:52 --> 00:30:53 still there but it's
00:30:53 --> 00:30:56 wet uh and you know and this is now it's
00:30:56 --> 00:30:59 it's turned into ice so um it's not
00:30:59 --> 00:31:01 going to be it's certainly not going to
00:31:01 --> 00:31:05 be Kil um tens of kilometers different
00:31:05 --> 00:31:07 um it might be a few kilometers
00:31:07 --> 00:31:09 different um on average and I'm talking
00:31:09 --> 00:31:11 about the average uh but but I don't
00:31:11 --> 00:31:13 think it would uh you know it wouldn't
00:31:13 --> 00:31:14 have turned into a gaps giant or
00:31:14 --> 00:31:16 anything like that that's an interesting
00:31:16 --> 00:31:17 question though because we think it's
00:31:17 --> 00:31:20 because of Frozen water out in the
00:31:20 --> 00:31:22 depths of the solar system adding to the
00:31:22 --> 00:31:25 mass of the gas giants as they were
00:31:25 --> 00:31:27 being formed we think that is one reason
00:31:27 --> 00:31:28 why they be became so big because they
00:31:28 --> 00:31:32 had enough boun to hold on to a a gas
00:31:32 --> 00:31:35 envelope um and so it's a good question
00:31:35 --> 00:31:37 to to ask that at what difference would
00:31:37 --> 00:31:39 the ice make but it but this is really
00:31:39 --> 00:31:41 just a surface layer of ice rather than
00:31:41 --> 00:31:43 a solid block of ice which may be at the
00:31:43 --> 00:31:47 core of the of the Gus Giants indeed all
00:31:47 --> 00:31:48 right thank you Wayne nice to get
00:31:48 --> 00:31:50 questions without notice while we're
00:31:50 --> 00:31:52 going out live during our recording
00:31:52 --> 00:31:54 sessions good to hear from you uh Fred
00:31:54 --> 00:31:56 we're just about done thank you very
00:31:56 --> 00:31:59 much a pleasure Andrew good to talk and
00:31:59 --> 00:32:01 uh some interesting topics and there'll
00:32:01 --> 00:32:04 be more next week indeed there will
00:32:04 --> 00:32:06 thanks Fred uh Professor Fred whats an
00:32:06 --> 00:32:08 astronomer at large don't forget to
00:32:08 --> 00:32:10 check us out online Space Nuts
00:32:10 --> 00:32:13 podcast.com SPAC nats.io where you can
00:32:13 --> 00:32:14 check out the shop maybe become a
00:32:14 --> 00:32:16 supporter of the podcast if you're
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00:32:28 --> 00:32:31 it is uh and uh thanks to Hugh in the
00:32:31 --> 00:32:33 studio as always and from me Andrew
00:32:33 --> 00:32:35 Dunley we will see you again soon on the
00:32:35 --> 00:32:39 very next episode of Space Nuts bye-bye
00:32:39 --> 00:32:41 Space Nuts you'll be listening to the
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