In this episode of SpaceTime , we explore significant developments in space exploration and cosmic studies that could reshape our understanding of the universe.
Nasa's MAVEN Mars Orbiter: Communication Loss
NASA's MAVEN (Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution) spacecraft has gone silent, with contact lost on December 6th after passing behind Mars. The orbiter has been a vital asset for over a decade, studying the Martian atmosphere and solar wind interactions that have transformed Mars from a water-rich world to a cold desert. We delve into MAVEN's critical findings, including the mechanisms of atmospheric escape and the implications of its potential loss for ongoing Martian research.
Galactic Neighbourhoods: Influencing Evolution
A new study reveals how a galaxy's local environment can significantly affect its evolution. The research, published in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, demonstrates that galaxies situated in densely populated regions tend to grow more slowly and develop different structures compared to their isolated counterparts. By analysing data from the Deep Extragalactic Visible Legacy Survey, astronomers have gained insights into the complex dynamics of galactic interactions and their impact on star formation rates.
Uranus and Neptune: More Richie than Icy?
Challenging long-held classifications, a recent study suggests that the solar system's ice giants, Uranus and Neptune, may actually be more rocky than icy. Researchers from the University of Zurich conducted computer simulations that indicate a broader range of internal compositions for these planets, which could explain their complex magnetic fields. This new perspective could alter our understanding of planetary formation and evolution, paving the way for future explorations of these distant worlds.
www.spacetimewithstuartgary.com (https://www.spacetimewithstuartgary.com/)
✍️ Episode References
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
NASA TV
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00:00:00 --> 00:00:03 This is Spacetime series 28, episode 147
00:00:03 --> 00:00:05 for broadcast on the 15th of December,
00:00:06 --> 00:00:07 2025.
00:00:07 --> 00:00:10 Coming up on Spaceime, NASA loses
00:00:10 --> 00:00:13 contact with its maven Mars Orbiter. How
00:00:13 --> 00:00:15 the cosmic landscape impacts the
00:00:15 --> 00:00:18 galaxy's life cycle, and a new study
00:00:18 --> 00:00:21 suggests the planets Uranus and Neptune
00:00:21 --> 00:00:23 might be rock giants rather than ice
00:00:23 --> 00:00:27 giants. All that and more coming up on
00:00:27 --> 00:00:29 Spaceime.
00:00:29 --> 00:00:48 Welcome to Space Time with Stuart Garry.
00:00:48 --> 00:00:50 NASA has lost contact with its Mars
00:00:50 --> 00:00:52 Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution or
00:00:52 --> 00:00:55 Maven spacecraft. The agency says the
00:00:55 --> 00:00:57 probe disappeared off the proverbial
00:00:57 --> 00:01:00 screens on December the 6th. At the
00:01:00 --> 00:01:02 time, telemetry showed Maven was working
00:01:02 --> 00:01:04 nominally as it passed behind Mars as
00:01:04 --> 00:01:07 seen from Earth, but the spacecraft
00:01:07 --> 00:01:09 didn't resume communications after
00:01:09 --> 00:01:11 emerging from behind the planet. Mission
00:01:11 --> 00:01:13 managers are now investigating the
00:01:13 --> 00:01:15 anomaly and are yet to determine what's
00:01:15 --> 00:01:17 gone wrong. The orbit has been circling
00:01:17 --> 00:01:19 the red planet for more than a decade,
00:01:19 --> 00:01:22 gathering scientific data and serving as
00:01:22 --> 00:01:25 a key communications relay satellite.
00:01:25 --> 00:01:28 Maven launched back in November 2013 and
00:01:28 --> 00:01:30 entered orbit around Mars in September
00:01:30 --> 00:01:33 2014. The spacecraft's primary mission
00:01:33 --> 00:01:35 has been to study the planet's upper
00:01:35 --> 00:01:37 atmosphere and interactions with the
00:01:37 --> 00:01:39 solar wind, including how the atmosphere
00:01:40 --> 00:01:42 escapes into space, helping scientists
00:01:42 --> 00:01:44 better understand how the red planet
00:01:44 --> 00:01:46 changed from a warm, wet world with a
00:01:46 --> 00:01:48 thick atmosphere, one capable of
00:01:48 --> 00:01:50 supporting liquid water on its surface
00:01:50 --> 00:01:52 and turning it into the inhospitable,
00:01:52 --> 00:01:55 freeze-dried desert it is today. This
00:01:55 --> 00:01:59 report from NASA TV. Today, Mars is a
00:01:59 --> 00:02:01 cold, dry world with a tenuous
00:02:01 --> 00:02:05 atmosphere only 1% as thick as Earth's.
00:02:05 --> 00:02:07 But in the ancient past, water flowed
00:02:07 --> 00:02:09 freely across the Martian surface,
00:02:09 --> 00:02:13 maintained by a thick, early atmosphere.
00:02:13 --> 00:02:15 Since it first arrived at the red planet
00:02:15 --> 00:02:17 in September 2014, NASA's Maven
00:02:17 --> 00:02:19 spacecraft has been studying how that
00:02:20 --> 00:02:22 atmosphere was lost to space and with
00:02:22 --> 00:02:26 it, the water.
00:02:26 --> 00:02:29 In 2015, Maven observed the solar wind
00:02:29 --> 00:02:31 eroding the Martian atmosphere. The
00:02:31 --> 00:02:33 solar wind is a stream of electrically
00:02:34 --> 00:02:36 charged particles blowing from the sun.
00:02:36 --> 00:02:39 Maven watched as ions from the Mars
00:02:39 --> 00:02:41 upper atmosphere were accelerated by the
00:02:41 --> 00:02:43 solar winds magnetic field and driven
00:02:43 --> 00:02:46 into space, confirming that this process
00:02:46 --> 00:02:47 has deeply eroded the Martian
00:02:47 --> 00:02:49 atmosphere.
00:02:49 --> 00:02:52 In 2017, Maven showed that a process
00:02:52 --> 00:02:53 called sputtering has had an even
00:02:54 --> 00:02:56 greater effect on the atmosphere. When
00:02:56 --> 00:02:58 ions from Mars get picked up by the
00:02:58 --> 00:03:00 solar winds magnetic field, they can
00:03:00 --> 00:03:02 crash into neutral atoms at the top of
00:03:02 --> 00:03:04 the atmosphere, sputtering them into
00:03:04 --> 00:03:06 space. Maven measured present-day
00:03:06 --> 00:03:09 isotopes of argon, which can be removed
00:03:09 --> 00:03:11 only by sputtering, to determine that
00:03:11 --> 00:03:14 65% of the noble gas has been lost over
00:03:14 --> 00:03:16 time. This allowed scientists to
00:03:16 --> 00:03:18 estimate the escape of other gases, and
00:03:18 --> 00:03:19 determine that sputtering has been the
00:03:20 --> 00:03:22 primary mechanism driving the atmosphere
00:03:22 --> 00:03:25 into space. Later in 2017, Maven
00:03:25 --> 00:03:27 revealed a twist in Mars' invisible
00:03:28 --> 00:03:30 magnetic tail. When the sun's magnetic
00:03:30 --> 00:03:33 fields reach Mars, they pile up and wrap
00:03:33 --> 00:03:35 around the planet, creating an induced
00:03:35 --> 00:03:37 magnetic field that is drawn out behind
00:03:37 --> 00:03:40 Mars like a comet's tail. The Martian
00:03:40 --> 00:03:43 crust also contains small pockets of its
00:03:43 --> 00:03:45 own early magnetic field, which rotate
00:03:45 --> 00:03:47 along with the planet. Maven discovered
00:03:47 --> 00:03:49 that when these two fields interact,
00:03:49 --> 00:03:51 they put a twist in the magneto tail,
00:03:51 --> 00:03:54 confirming model predictions.
00:03:54 --> 00:03:57 In 2018, a runaway series of dust storms
00:03:57 --> 00:03:59 created a dust cloud so large that it
00:03:59 --> 00:04:02 enveloped the planet. During this global
00:04:02 --> 00:04:04 dust storm, Maven observed an abrupt
00:04:04 --> 00:04:06 unexpected spike in the amount of water
00:04:06 --> 00:04:09 in the upper atmosphere. It discovered
00:04:09 --> 00:04:11 that heating from dust storms can loft
00:04:11 --> 00:04:13 water molecules far higher into the
00:04:13 --> 00:04:15 atmosphere than usual, leading to a
00:04:15 --> 00:04:19 sudden surge in water lost to space.
00:04:19 --> 00:04:21 Later in 2018, Maven announced the
00:04:21 --> 00:04:23 discovery of a new type of aurora at
00:04:23 --> 00:04:25 Mars. The mission had previously
00:04:25 --> 00:04:28 observed auroras during solar storms
00:04:28 --> 00:04:30 after electrons from the sun struck the
00:04:30 --> 00:04:32 upper atmosphere, causing it to glow
00:04:32 --> 00:04:35 with ultraviolet light. Maven's 2018
00:04:35 --> 00:04:37 discovery was the first observation of a
00:04:38 --> 00:04:40 Mars proton aurora. When protons from
00:04:40 --> 00:04:42 the solar wind pick up electrons from
00:04:42 --> 00:04:45 the Martian ionosphere, they can slip
00:04:45 --> 00:04:46 through the planet's bow shock and
00:04:46 --> 00:04:48 plunge into its upper atmosphere,
00:04:48 --> 00:04:52 causing widespread auroras. On Earth,
00:04:52 --> 00:04:54 proton auroras are isolated near the
00:04:54 --> 00:04:56 poles, but on Mars, they can bathe the
00:04:56 --> 00:05:00 dayside in ultraviolet radiation.
00:05:00 --> 00:05:03 In 2019, Maven produced the first map of
00:05:03 --> 00:05:04 wind currents in the Martian
00:05:04 --> 00:05:06 thermosphere, revealing disturbances and
00:05:06 --> 00:05:09 high altitude winds caused by terrain
00:05:09 --> 00:05:11 features on the surface. Maven sensed
00:05:11 --> 00:05:14 these disturbances as it skimmed through
00:05:14 --> 00:05:15 the upper atmosphere, feeling the
00:05:16 --> 00:05:18 imprint of mountains and valleys far
00:05:18 --> 00:05:19 below.
00:05:19 --> 00:05:22 In 2020, data for Maven led to the
00:05:22 --> 00:05:24 creation of another new map showing the
00:05:24 --> 00:05:26 Martian atmosphere's electric current
00:05:26 --> 00:05:28 systems for the first time. Maven
00:05:28 --> 00:05:30 detected these currents indirectly by
00:05:30 --> 00:05:32 observing the solar winds magnetic field
00:05:32 --> 00:05:35 lines drape around the planet. Mapping
00:05:35 --> 00:05:37 the electric current systems can help
00:05:37 --> 00:05:38 scientists to better understand the
00:05:38 --> 00:05:42 forces that drive atmospheric escape.
00:05:42 --> 00:05:45 In 2022, Maven watched as the solar wind
00:05:45 --> 00:05:48 unexpectedly disappeared from Mars. The
00:05:48 --> 00:05:50 event occurred when a fastmoving patch
00:05:50 --> 00:05:52 of the solar wind overtook a slower
00:05:52 --> 00:05:54 moving region, leaving a void in its
00:05:54 --> 00:05:57 wake. In response, the Martian
00:05:57 --> 00:05:59 magnetosphere ballooned outward by
00:05:59 --> 00:06:01 thousands of kilome, engulfing Maven's
00:06:01 --> 00:06:03 orbit and causing the solar wind to
00:06:03 --> 00:06:07 temporarily disappear from view. In 2022
00:06:07 --> 00:06:09 and 2023, Maven captured stunning
00:06:09 --> 00:06:11 ultraviolet images of Mars when the
00:06:11 --> 00:06:13 planet was near opposite ends of its
00:06:13 --> 00:06:16 elliptical orbit. The first image was
00:06:16 --> 00:06:17 taken when the southern hemisphere was
00:06:17 --> 00:06:20 in summer, which coincides with Mars's
00:06:20 --> 00:06:22 closest approach to the sun. Canyons and
00:06:22 --> 00:06:25 basins are covered with a thin haze of
00:06:25 --> 00:06:28 ozone indicated by a tinge of pink. The
00:06:28 --> 00:06:30 second image was taken during northern
00:06:30 --> 00:06:32 spring after Mars had passed its
00:06:32 --> 00:06:34 furthest point from the sun. White
00:06:34 --> 00:06:36 clouds hint at rapidly changing
00:06:36 --> 00:06:38 conditions in the northern polar regions
00:06:38 --> 00:06:41 while deep magenta signals a buildup of
00:06:41 --> 00:06:44 ozone during the frigid winter.
00:06:44 --> 00:06:47 In 2024, Maven observed the aftermath of
00:06:47 --> 00:06:49 an ex-class solar flare, the strongest
00:06:49 --> 00:06:52 type of eruption from the sun. The flare
00:06:52 --> 00:06:53 was quickly followed by a burst of
00:06:54 --> 00:06:56 charged particles crashing into Mars,
00:06:56 --> 00:06:58 leaving black and white streaks on
00:06:58 --> 00:07:01 images taken by NASA's Curiosity rover.
00:07:01 --> 00:07:03 Maven watched from above as auroras lit
00:07:04 --> 00:07:06 up the planet in a brilliant display of
00:07:06 --> 00:07:09 celestial fireworks.
00:07:09 --> 00:07:12 Maven's other role as a communications
00:07:12 --> 00:07:14 relay satellite has provided a key link
00:07:14 --> 00:07:16 between both the Mars Curiosity and Mars
00:07:16 --> 00:07:18 Perseverance rovers down on the Martian
00:07:18 --> 00:07:21 surface and mission managers at the Jet
00:07:21 --> 00:07:22 Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena,
00:07:22 --> 00:07:25 California by way of NASA's Deep Space
00:07:25 --> 00:07:27 Communications Network ground stations
00:07:27 --> 00:07:30 in Goldstone, California, Madrid, Spain,
00:07:30 --> 00:07:33 and Camber, Australia. NASA's Mars
00:07:33 --> 00:07:35 Odyssey spacecraft and Mars
00:07:35 --> 00:07:37 Reconnaissance Orbiter also serve as
00:07:37 --> 00:07:39 communications relays for the rovers,
00:07:39 --> 00:07:41 but both are significantly older than
00:07:41 --> 00:07:44 Maven. And this isn't the first time
00:07:44 --> 00:07:46 that Maven has suffered technical
00:07:46 --> 00:07:49 issues. Back in 2022, the prob's
00:07:49 --> 00:07:51 inertial measurement units, which are
00:07:51 --> 00:07:53 used for navigation, failed. That force
00:07:53 --> 00:07:55 mission manages to switch the orbiter to
00:07:55 --> 00:07:58 a stellar navigation system, minimizing
00:07:58 --> 00:07:59 reliance on the inertial measurement
00:07:59 --> 00:08:02 units. Maven has enough propellant to
00:08:02 --> 00:08:04 maintain its orbit through at least
00:08:04 --> 00:08:06 until the end of the decade.
00:08:06 --> 00:08:10 This is spaceime still to come. How a
00:08:10 --> 00:08:12 cosmic landscape can impact the galaxy's
00:08:12 --> 00:08:15 life cycle. And a new study suggests the
00:08:15 --> 00:08:17 solar systems two ice giants, Uranus and
00:08:18 --> 00:08:20 Neptune, might actually be more rocky
00:08:20 --> 00:08:22 than icy. All that and more still to
00:08:22 --> 00:08:39 come on Spaceime.
00:08:39 --> 00:08:41 A new study has shown how a galaxy's
00:08:41 --> 00:08:43 neighborhood can influence its
00:08:43 --> 00:08:45 evolution. The findings reported in the
00:08:45 --> 00:08:47 monthly notices of the Royal
00:08:47 --> 00:08:49 Astronomical Society offers a new level
00:08:49 --> 00:08:51 of detail into science's understanding
00:08:51 --> 00:08:53 of galactic evolution in the distant
00:08:53 --> 00:08:56 universe. The research is based on data
00:08:56 --> 00:08:58 from Devils, the Deep Extragalactic
00:08:58 --> 00:09:01 Visible Legacy Survey, an extensive
00:09:01 --> 00:09:03 galaxy evolution survey which shows that
00:09:03 --> 00:09:05 a galaxy's local environment plays a
00:09:05 --> 00:09:08 major role in how it changes over time,
00:09:08 --> 00:09:11 strongly influencing its shape, size,
00:09:11 --> 00:09:13 and even its growth rate. The survey
00:09:13 --> 00:09:15 combines data from a wide range of
00:09:15 --> 00:09:17 terrestrial and space-based telescopes
00:09:17 --> 00:09:19 to investigate various aspects of
00:09:19 --> 00:09:21 astrophysics for analyzing hundreds of
00:09:21 --> 00:09:24 thousands of galaxies. The project lead,
00:09:24 --> 00:09:26 Luke Davies, from the University of
00:09:26 --> 00:09:28 Western Australia, node of the
00:09:28 --> 00:09:30 International Center for Radioastronomy
00:09:30 --> 00:09:32 Research, says the Devil Survey is
00:09:32 --> 00:09:34 unique in that it's the first of its
00:09:34 --> 00:09:36 kind to explore detailed aspects of the
00:09:36 --> 00:09:39 distant universe. It focuses on galaxies
00:09:39 --> 00:09:41 that existed up to 5 billion years ago
00:09:42 --> 00:09:44 and examines how these galaxies have
00:09:44 --> 00:09:46 changed through to the present day. He
00:09:46 --> 00:09:48 says, "While previous surveys during
00:09:48 --> 00:09:51 this period of universal history have
00:09:51 --> 00:09:53 explored the broad evolution of galaxy
00:09:53 --> 00:09:54 properties, they've inherently lacked
00:09:54 --> 00:09:56 the capacity to determine the finer
00:09:56 --> 00:09:59 details of the cosmic landscape. The
00:09:59 --> 00:10:01 Devil Survey has allowed astronomers to
00:10:01 --> 00:10:03 zoom in and focus on mapping out the
00:10:03 --> 00:10:06 small scale environment of galaxies.
00:10:06 --> 00:10:08 This new approach has allowed Davies and
00:10:08 --> 00:10:10 colleagues to identify the number of
00:10:10 --> 00:10:12 stars in a galaxy, understand ongoing
00:10:12 --> 00:10:15 star formation, and analyze their visual
00:10:15 --> 00:10:18 appearance, shapes, and structures. They
00:10:18 --> 00:10:19 can then compare these properties
00:10:19 --> 00:10:21 between galaxies in the present day
00:10:21 --> 00:10:23 universe with galaxies that existed
00:10:23 --> 00:10:25 around 5 billion years ago. In order to
00:10:25 --> 00:10:27 determine how galaxies have changed over
00:10:28 --> 00:10:30 time, they found that galaxies that are
00:10:30 --> 00:10:32 surrounded by lots of other galaxies,
00:10:32 --> 00:10:34 one might say the bustling centers of
00:10:34 --> 00:10:36 galactic cities in the cosmos tend to
00:10:36 --> 00:10:38 grow more slowly and have different
00:10:38 --> 00:10:39 structures compared to their more
00:10:40 --> 00:10:42 isolated counterparts. In crowded
00:10:42 --> 00:10:44 regions of the universe, galaxies
00:10:44 --> 00:10:46 interact with each other and compete for
00:10:46 --> 00:10:48 resources such as gas to form new stars
00:10:48 --> 00:10:52 and grow. Davy says this competition can
00:10:52 --> 00:10:54 impact their evolution and in some
00:10:54 --> 00:10:56 instances cause star formation to slow
00:10:56 --> 00:10:58 down earlier than expected causing
00:10:58 --> 00:10:59 galaxies to die.
00:10:59 --> 00:11:02 >> It's a survey that's primarily based
00:11:02 --> 00:11:04 around observations which are done with
00:11:04 --> 00:11:06 the Anglo Australian telescope in New
00:11:06 --> 00:11:08 South Wales. So what we do is we pick a
00:11:08 --> 00:11:11 few patches of the night sky and we take
00:11:11 --> 00:11:12 a lot of imaging data that currently
00:11:12 --> 00:11:14 exists in those regions and we put it
00:11:14 --> 00:11:16 together to build a sample of galaxies
00:11:16 --> 00:11:17 that we want to explore. And then we go
00:11:17 --> 00:11:19 to the Anglo Australian telescope and we
00:11:19 --> 00:11:21 measure spectra for all of those
00:11:21 --> 00:11:23 galaxies. And what that primarily allows
00:11:23 --> 00:11:25 us to do is to measure the
00:11:25 --> 00:11:27 three-dimensional structure of the
00:11:27 --> 00:11:29 universe. So we map out the distances
00:11:29 --> 00:11:30 and the positions of all of the
00:11:30 --> 00:11:31 galaxies. And then we determine what the
00:11:32 --> 00:11:33 structure looks like. And we use that
00:11:33 --> 00:11:35 structure to work out places in the
00:11:35 --> 00:11:36 universe where there are lots of
00:11:36 --> 00:11:39 galaxies. So very sort of overdense
00:11:39 --> 00:11:40 regions which are your sort of bustling
00:11:40 --> 00:11:42 city centers of of the universe
00:11:42 --> 00:11:44 environment. So they're mostly galaxy
00:11:44 --> 00:11:46 groups which are slightly smaller than
00:11:46 --> 00:11:49 clusters. So given the volume Yeah.
00:11:49 --> 00:11:50 Yeah. So sort of from the local group
00:11:50 --> 00:11:52 size up to a little bit bigger mainly
00:11:52 --> 00:11:54 because of the volumes that we probe are
00:11:54 --> 00:11:56 quite small in comparison to the nearby
00:11:56 --> 00:11:58 universe. So you actually don't get some
00:11:58 --> 00:12:00 of the really massive cluster type
00:12:00 --> 00:12:02 things. Then what we do is we try and
00:12:02 --> 00:12:04 combine all the information about what
00:12:04 --> 00:12:06 the galaxy's local environment is like.
00:12:06 --> 00:12:08 So how how clustered the regions are and
00:12:08 --> 00:12:09 link that up with the properties of the
00:12:10 --> 00:12:12 galaxies to see how where they live is
00:12:12 --> 00:12:14 impacting their life cycle.
00:12:14 --> 00:12:15 >> And what have you found?
00:12:15 --> 00:12:17 >> What we found is that when you start to
00:12:17 --> 00:12:20 to map out the universe on this sort of
00:12:20 --> 00:12:21 smallalish scale in terms of
00:12:22 --> 00:12:23 environments that the properties of
00:12:23 --> 00:12:25 galaxies are very strongly linked to
00:12:25 --> 00:12:27 where they live in the universe. So if
00:12:27 --> 00:12:29 you grow up in bustling sort of city
00:12:29 --> 00:12:31 centers of the the the galactic
00:12:31 --> 00:12:32 environment. You actually die more
00:12:32 --> 00:12:35 easily. Um you form less stars. you you
00:12:35 --> 00:12:37 look different. You grow in a different
00:12:37 --> 00:12:39 way to if you live in a sort of isolated
00:12:39 --> 00:12:41 remote region of space.
00:12:41 --> 00:12:42 >> I would have thought that if you're in a
00:12:42 --> 00:12:44 busy bustling area with lots of other
00:12:44 --> 00:12:46 galaxies, it'd be easier to steal gas
00:12:46 --> 00:12:49 from them and make more stars and even
00:12:49 --> 00:12:51 grow bigger because you can merge with
00:12:51 --> 00:12:52 them. That's not what you found. But
00:12:52 --> 00:12:55 >> so so that's largely true for the the
00:12:55 --> 00:12:57 sort of big central galaxies in those
00:12:57 --> 00:12:59 environments. We tend to split galaxies
00:12:59 --> 00:13:01 in those environments to centrals and
00:13:01 --> 00:13:03 satellites where central is sort of the
00:13:03 --> 00:13:04 main big galaxy in the middle and the
00:13:04 --> 00:13:06 satellites are all the other ones which
00:13:06 --> 00:13:08 are moving moving around it. So for the
00:13:08 --> 00:13:10 central region being in that over dense
00:13:10 --> 00:13:11 environment actually helps it to grow
00:13:11 --> 00:13:13 more massive but for the satellites it
00:13:13 --> 00:13:15 actually stops them from forming new
00:13:15 --> 00:13:17 stars so that they don't grow any bigger
00:13:17 --> 00:13:19 and all of those interactions with the
00:13:20 --> 00:13:21 other galaxies actually change the way
00:13:21 --> 00:13:24 the galaxy looks as well. So, we define
00:13:24 --> 00:13:25 how a galaxy looks at something called
00:13:25 --> 00:13:27 morphology, which basically defines
00:13:27 --> 00:13:29 whether it's sort of a big blobby red
00:13:29 --> 00:13:31 structure or a disc-like spiral
00:13:31 --> 00:13:33 structure. And where a galaxy lives in
00:13:33 --> 00:13:35 its environment and its interactions
00:13:35 --> 00:13:37 with other galaxies changes the type of
00:13:37 --> 00:13:38 morphology that that galaxy is.
00:13:38 --> 00:13:41 >> Is that why the large and small melanic
00:13:41 --> 00:13:43 clouds are disrupted spirals or
00:13:43 --> 00:13:45 irregular spirals rather than grand
00:13:45 --> 00:13:47 spirals like say the Milky Way or
00:13:47 --> 00:13:49 >> Yeah. So, they're also much smaller. So
00:13:49 --> 00:13:51 these sort of smaller regular galaxies
00:13:51 --> 00:13:53 tend to form as more sort of blobby
00:13:53 --> 00:13:54 structures but yeah their interactions
00:13:54 --> 00:13:56 with the Milky Way will make them look
00:13:56 --> 00:13:58 different. So imagine if you have like
00:13:58 --> 00:14:00 say you have two big spiralally type
00:14:00 --> 00:14:01 galaxies and you smash them both
00:14:01 --> 00:14:03 together you end up with something that
00:14:03 --> 00:14:04 looks more like an elliptical galaxy and
00:14:04 --> 00:14:06 because those processes are happening
00:14:06 --> 00:14:08 more readily in group environments you
00:14:08 --> 00:14:10 end up getting more elliptical like
00:14:10 --> 00:14:12 things in group environments than you
00:14:12 --> 00:14:14 would in isolated environments. The real
00:14:14 --> 00:14:16 benefit of what we've done with devils
00:14:16 --> 00:14:18 in this is that this type of science of
00:14:18 --> 00:14:20 mapping out the sort of group scale, so
00:14:20 --> 00:14:22 the the much lower mass scale than
00:14:22 --> 00:14:23 clusters environments has only
00:14:23 --> 00:14:25 previously been done in the relatively
00:14:25 --> 00:14:27 local universe. The reason for this is
00:14:27 --> 00:14:28 that to be able to map out the
00:14:28 --> 00:14:30 three-dimensional structure of a
00:14:30 --> 00:14:32 universe, you need to measure red shifts
00:14:32 --> 00:14:33 basically for lots of galaxies to get to
00:14:33 --> 00:14:35 their distance. And doing that outside
00:14:35 --> 00:14:36 of the local universe is really
00:14:36 --> 00:14:38 problematic because you have to observe
00:14:38 --> 00:14:40 for a really long time to get enough
00:14:40 --> 00:14:41 signal to noise to measure the red
00:14:41 --> 00:14:43 shift. So we've done this in the local
00:14:43 --> 00:14:44 universe with other surveys, but with
00:14:44 --> 00:14:46 Devils, what we've done is we've
00:14:46 --> 00:14:47 stretched that out into the much more
00:14:48 --> 00:14:49 distant universe by observing the same
00:14:49 --> 00:14:51 galaxy for much longer time basically to
00:14:52 --> 00:14:53 get their red shift. So it's the first
00:14:53 --> 00:14:54 time we've really managed to map out
00:14:54 --> 00:14:56 this sort of group scale structure in
00:14:56 --> 00:14:58 the very distant universe
00:14:58 --> 00:15:00 >> and you're moving from devils to waves
00:15:00 --> 00:15:01 next.
00:15:01 --> 00:15:03 >> Yeah. So waves is a survey that going to
00:15:03 --> 00:15:05 be starting next year on a on a new
00:15:05 --> 00:15:07 facility which is called foremost which
00:15:07 --> 00:15:09 is the 4 m multiobject spectrograph
00:15:10 --> 00:15:11 telescope which is in Chile. And what
00:15:11 --> 00:15:13 we're doing with waves is that we
00:15:13 --> 00:15:15 actually have a few different sort of
00:15:15 --> 00:15:16 surveys that we're doing but one of the
00:15:16 --> 00:15:18 components of waves which is called
00:15:18 --> 00:15:19 waves deep. It's basically the same as
00:15:19 --> 00:15:22 devils but over a much much larger area.
00:15:22 --> 00:15:23 So essentially we'll be doing all of the
00:15:23 --> 00:15:25 science that we can do with devils now
00:15:25 --> 00:15:27 but to a much much finer degree over
00:15:27 --> 00:15:29 much larger volumes of the universe. We
00:15:29 --> 00:15:31 actually um have got the first test
00:15:31 --> 00:15:33 observations from foremost for some of
00:15:33 --> 00:15:35 the galaxies in waves which has been
00:15:35 --> 00:15:36 really exciting. So, we've all been
00:15:36 --> 00:15:37 working away to try and understand
00:15:38 --> 00:15:39 everything that's going on with the
00:15:39 --> 00:15:40 telescope and then we'll start waves in
00:15:40 --> 00:15:41 Earth next year.
00:15:41 --> 00:15:44 >> One of the big topics of recent papers
00:15:44 --> 00:15:46 that I've seen has been this ongoing
00:15:46 --> 00:15:50 hypothesis that the Milky Way may not be
00:15:50 --> 00:15:53 within a a strand of galaxies in the
00:15:53 --> 00:15:55 cosmic web of the universe, but rather
00:15:56 --> 00:15:58 it may actually be at or near the edge
00:15:58 --> 00:16:00 of a large void. Has your work in any
00:16:00 --> 00:16:02 way at all helped resolve that issue?
00:16:02 --> 00:16:05 The issue of this is is that some of our
00:16:05 --> 00:16:08 our results in terms of our cosmological
00:16:08 --> 00:16:10 analyses, so analyses of how the whole
00:16:10 --> 00:16:11 universe works essentially and how the
00:16:12 --> 00:16:13 whole universe is evolving are a little
00:16:13 --> 00:16:15 bit in tension with each other. And one
00:16:15 --> 00:16:16 of the possible solutions for that is
00:16:16 --> 00:16:19 that we live in a slightly atypical part
00:16:19 --> 00:16:21 of the universe. So next to a cosmic
00:16:21 --> 00:16:22 void which would mean that some of our
00:16:22 --> 00:16:24 our measurements that we use to infer
00:16:24 --> 00:16:26 cosmological principles are a little bit
00:16:26 --> 00:16:28 wrong because all of those assume
00:16:28 --> 00:16:30 basically that we live in a very
00:16:30 --> 00:16:32 representative place in the universe.
00:16:32 --> 00:16:34 Now it is really super interesting but
00:16:34 --> 00:16:36 it's not really something that I I work
00:16:36 --> 00:16:38 on massively. I look at galaxies which
00:16:38 --> 00:16:40 are much much further away than that
00:16:40 --> 00:16:41 local volume. But there is an
00:16:42 --> 00:16:43 Australian-led survey that's going to be
00:16:44 --> 00:16:45 happening on for almost as well called
00:16:45 --> 00:16:48 the 4HS which is being run from the
00:16:48 --> 00:16:49 country which will actually test some of
00:16:49 --> 00:16:50 these things about the distribution of
00:16:50 --> 00:16:52 galaxies in the very local universe as
00:16:52 --> 00:16:55 well. So I would say hold tight and in
00:16:55 --> 00:16:56 sort of four or five years time when we
00:16:56 --> 00:16:58 have results from foremost we might be
00:16:58 --> 00:16:59 able to say something a bit more about
00:16:59 --> 00:17:00 this problem.
00:17:00 --> 00:17:02 >> The reason for this assumption that
00:17:02 --> 00:17:04 we're in a of the edge of a void is
00:17:04 --> 00:17:06 simply because of studies looking at
00:17:06 --> 00:17:08 expansion of the universe based on dark
00:17:08 --> 00:17:08 energy.
00:17:08 --> 00:17:11 >> Yeah. So that's one of the cosmological
00:17:11 --> 00:17:12 measurements that I mentioned. So there
00:17:12 --> 00:17:14 there's currently just this tension as
00:17:14 --> 00:17:17 to how dark energy is evolving and
00:17:17 --> 00:17:18 whether it's changing with time or
00:17:18 --> 00:17:19 whether it's a constant. And one of the
00:17:20 --> 00:17:21 potential solutions to all of this
00:17:21 --> 00:17:23 conflict is that we live within this
00:17:23 --> 00:17:25 void which actually allows you to match
00:17:25 --> 00:17:27 up some of the sort of slightly
00:17:27 --> 00:17:28 disperate observations that you get from
00:17:28 --> 00:17:29 doing different measurements.
00:17:29 --> 00:17:31 >> Yeah, it's a small void if it is a void.
00:17:31 --> 00:17:32 But uh
00:17:32 --> 00:17:34 >> the interesting thing is of course there
00:17:34 --> 00:17:35 have been some new results that have
00:17:35 --> 00:17:37 just come out showing that dark energy
00:17:37 --> 00:17:40 isn't constant but in fact we have not
00:17:40 --> 00:17:42 just reached the maximum extent of dark
00:17:42 --> 00:17:44 energy but it may be going in reverse
00:17:44 --> 00:17:45 now.
00:17:45 --> 00:17:47 >> Yes. So most of those results are coming
00:17:47 --> 00:17:49 out of a surveill called DESI which is
00:17:49 --> 00:17:52 done in the the northern hemisphere and
00:17:52 --> 00:17:54 not to bang on about foremost too much
00:17:54 --> 00:17:56 as a pretty amazing instrument when it
00:17:56 --> 00:17:57 starts going but there's also a
00:17:57 --> 00:17:58 different survey that's going to be done
00:17:58 --> 00:18:00 on foremost which is a survey which is
00:18:00 --> 00:18:02 similar to DESI but will be in the
00:18:02 --> 00:18:04 southern hemisphere. So when that's done
00:18:04 --> 00:18:06 combining the data from DESI and this
00:18:06 --> 00:18:07 foremost survey in the southern
00:18:08 --> 00:18:09 hemisphere will actually produce way
00:18:09 --> 00:18:11 better constraints on all of these
00:18:11 --> 00:18:12 measurements. So it's quite exciting
00:18:12 --> 00:18:15 that we might have sort of desi times
00:18:15 --> 00:18:16 two in about five years time where we
00:18:16 --> 00:18:18 get much better constraints on all of
00:18:18 --> 00:18:19 this and we'll probably then get a
00:18:19 --> 00:18:21 definitive answer on to whether dark
00:18:21 --> 00:18:23 energy is changing with time or is
00:18:23 --> 00:18:23 constant.
00:18:23 --> 00:18:26 >> That's associate professor Luke Davies
00:18:26 --> 00:18:28 from the University of Western Australia
00:18:28 --> 00:18:29 node of the international center for
00:18:29 --> 00:18:33 radioastronomy research and this is
00:18:33 --> 00:18:36 spacetime still to come. A new study
00:18:36 --> 00:18:38 suggests the solar systems two ice giant
00:18:38 --> 00:18:40 planets Uranus and Neptune may actually
00:18:40 --> 00:18:43 be more rocky than icy. And later in the
00:18:43 --> 00:18:46 science report, a new study warns
00:18:46 --> 00:18:48 insufficient sleep may shorten your
00:18:48 --> 00:18:50 lifespan. All that and more still to
00:18:50 --> 00:19:08 come on Spaceime.
00:19:08 --> 00:19:10 A new study suggests the solar systems
00:19:10 --> 00:19:12 two ice giant planets, Uranus and
00:19:12 --> 00:19:14 Neptune, might actually be more rocky
00:19:14 --> 00:19:17 than icy. The findings follow new
00:19:17 --> 00:19:19 computer simulations examining the
00:19:19 --> 00:19:21 likely internal structures of the two
00:19:21 --> 00:19:23 worlds. Now, this new study isn't
00:19:24 --> 00:19:26 claiming that these two blue planets are
00:19:26 --> 00:19:28 one type of the other, water or rock.
00:19:28 --> 00:19:30 Rather, it simply challenges the idea
00:19:30 --> 00:19:32 that ice rich isn't the only
00:19:32 --> 00:19:35 possibility. This new interpretation is
00:19:35 --> 00:19:37 also consistent with the discovery that
00:19:37 --> 00:19:39 the dwarf planet Pluto is rock dominated
00:19:39 --> 00:19:41 in its composition.
00:19:42 --> 00:19:44 The planets in our solar system are
00:19:44 --> 00:19:46 typically divided into three broad
00:19:46 --> 00:19:47 categories based on their general
00:19:47 --> 00:19:50 composition. There are the four
00:19:50 --> 00:19:52 terrestrial rocky planets, Mercury,
00:19:52 --> 00:19:55 Venus, Earth, and Mars. Then the two gas
00:19:55 --> 00:19:57 giants, Jupiter, and Saturn. And
00:19:57 --> 00:20:00 finally, the two ice giants, Uranus and
00:20:00 --> 00:20:02 Neptune. Now, according to the new work
00:20:02 --> 00:20:04 carried out by the University of Zurich
00:20:04 --> 00:20:06 scientific team, Uranus and Neptune
00:20:06 --> 00:20:09 might actually be more rocky than icy.
00:20:09 --> 00:20:11 The study's lead author, Luca Morph,
00:20:11 --> 00:20:13 says the ice giant classification might
00:20:13 --> 00:20:16 be an oversimplification, but he admits
00:20:16 --> 00:20:18 both worlds are still poorly understood
00:20:18 --> 00:20:20 and models on the two based on physics
00:20:20 --> 00:20:22 are too assumptionheavy, while imperial
00:20:22 --> 00:20:25 models are too simplistic. Morphin
00:20:25 --> 00:20:27 colleagues combined both approaches in
00:20:27 --> 00:20:29 order to get internal models of the two
00:20:29 --> 00:20:31 planets that are both agnostic and
00:20:31 --> 00:20:34 physically consistent. Now to do this
00:20:34 --> 00:20:36 they first started with random density
00:20:36 --> 00:20:38 profiles for each planet's interior
00:20:38 --> 00:20:41 based on a numerical framework. They
00:20:41 --> 00:20:43 then calculated planetary gravitational
00:20:43 --> 00:20:44 fields in a way that was consistent with
00:20:44 --> 00:20:47 the observed data available and that
00:20:47 --> 00:20:48 allowed them to infer a possible
00:20:48 --> 00:20:51 internal composition. Finally, the
00:20:51 --> 00:20:53 process is repeated to obtain the best
00:20:53 --> 00:20:55 possible match between models and
00:20:55 --> 00:20:58 observational data. And the authors
00:20:58 --> 00:20:59 found that the potential internal
00:20:59 --> 00:21:02 composition of the pair isn't limited to
00:21:02 --> 00:21:05 mostly ices. Instead, a new range of
00:21:06 --> 00:21:08 internal compositions show that both
00:21:08 --> 00:21:10 planets can either be water-rich ice or
00:21:10 --> 00:21:13 rockri material. The study has also
00:21:14 --> 00:21:16 brought a new perspective on both Uranus
00:21:16 --> 00:21:18 and Neptune's puzzling magnetic fields.
00:21:18 --> 00:21:20 While the Earth has clear north and
00:21:20 --> 00:21:22 south magnetic poles, the magnetic
00:21:22 --> 00:21:24 fields of Uranus and Neptune are far
00:21:24 --> 00:21:26 more complex and include more than just
00:21:26 --> 00:21:29 two poles. The new models show ionic
00:21:29 --> 00:21:31 water layers which generate magnetic
00:21:31 --> 00:21:34 dynamos at locations that help explain
00:21:34 --> 00:21:37 the observed nondipolar magnetic fields.
00:21:37 --> 00:21:39 They also found that Uranus's magnetic
00:21:39 --> 00:21:41 field originates far deeper inside the
00:21:42 --> 00:21:44 planet than that of Neptune. While these
00:21:44 --> 00:21:47 new results are promising, uncertainty
00:21:47 --> 00:21:50 still remains. One of the main issues is
00:21:50 --> 00:21:52 that physicists still barely understand
00:21:52 --> 00:21:54 how materials behave under the exotic
00:21:54 --> 00:21:56 conditions of pressure and temperature
00:21:56 --> 00:21:58 which are found at the heart of a planet
00:21:58 --> 00:22:01 and that will impact results. Still,
00:22:01 --> 00:22:03 despite the uncertainties, these new
00:22:03 --> 00:22:05 results are paving the way for new
00:22:05 --> 00:22:07 potential interior composition
00:22:07 --> 00:22:09 scenarios. scenarios which are
00:22:09 --> 00:22:11 challenging decades old assumptions and
00:22:11 --> 00:22:14 which could guide future research into
00:22:14 --> 00:22:16 planetary conditions.
00:22:16 --> 00:22:33 This is spacetime.
00:22:33 --> 00:22:35 And time now to take a brief look at
00:22:35 --> 00:22:37 some of the other stories making news in
00:22:37 --> 00:22:39 science this week with a science report.
00:22:39 --> 00:22:42 A new study warns insufficient sleep may
00:22:42 --> 00:22:45 shorten your life. The findings reported
00:22:45 --> 00:22:47 in the journal Sleep Advances compared
00:22:47 --> 00:22:50 sleep patterns with life expectancy. And
00:22:50 --> 00:22:52 the authors found that as a behavioral
00:22:52 --> 00:22:55 driver for life expectancy, sleep stood
00:22:55 --> 00:22:58 out far more than diet, exercise,
00:22:58 --> 00:23:00 loneliness, and indeed more than any
00:23:00 --> 00:23:02 other factor except smoking. For the
00:23:02 --> 00:23:05 study, the CDC, the Centers for Disease
00:23:05 --> 00:23:07 Control and Prevention, defined
00:23:07 --> 00:23:09 sufficient sleep as at least 7 hours per
00:23:09 --> 00:23:11 night, which is recommended by the
00:23:11 --> 00:23:13 American Academy of Sleep Medicine and
00:23:13 --> 00:23:15 by the Sleep Research Society. Although
00:23:15 --> 00:23:17 previous research has shown broadly that
00:23:17 --> 00:23:19 a lack of adequate sleep does lead to
00:23:19 --> 00:23:22 high mortality risk, the new research is
00:23:22 --> 00:23:23 the first to reveal year-to-year
00:23:24 --> 00:23:26 correlations between sleep and life
00:23:26 --> 00:23:28 expectancy.
00:23:28 --> 00:23:30 The World Meteorological Organization
00:23:30 --> 00:23:33 says there's now a 55% chance of a weak
00:23:33 --> 00:23:35 leninia weather pattern developing over
00:23:35 --> 00:23:38 the next 3 months. Leninia conditions
00:23:38 --> 00:23:40 typically bring higher rainfall and
00:23:40 --> 00:23:42 cooler temperatures across Australia.
00:23:42 --> 00:23:45 And the study's authors say climate has
00:23:45 --> 00:23:47 been at borderline leninia conditions
00:23:47 --> 00:23:49 since mid- November. The agency says
00:23:49 --> 00:23:51 Leninia is just one of the climatic
00:23:51 --> 00:23:53 patterns influencing our weather with
00:23:53 --> 00:23:55 climate change also having a major
00:23:55 --> 00:23:57 impact on temperatures and extreme
00:23:57 --> 00:24:00 weather events.
00:24:00 --> 00:24:02 One of the longest and most intact
00:24:02 --> 00:24:04 segments of Jerusalem's city wall has
00:24:04 --> 00:24:06 been uncovered by archaeologists with
00:24:06 --> 00:24:09 the Israeli Antiquities Authority. The
00:24:09 --> 00:24:11 remarkably well preserved segment dates
00:24:11 --> 00:24:13 back to the Hassamean Makabe period of
00:24:13 --> 00:24:17 the late 2nd century B.C.E. Some 200
00:24:17 --> 00:24:20 years before Christ and 800 years before
00:24:20 --> 00:24:22 the birth of Islam, the ancient Jewish
00:24:22 --> 00:24:24 fortification was unearthed within the
00:24:24 --> 00:24:27 Kishel complex at the Tower of David
00:24:27 --> 00:24:29 adjacent to the historic citadel. The
00:24:29 --> 00:24:32 newly uncovered segment is over 40 m
00:24:32 --> 00:24:35 long and some 5 m wide. It was built
00:24:35 --> 00:24:37 from massive stone blocks that were
00:24:37 --> 00:24:38 finally dressed with a distinctive
00:24:38 --> 00:24:40 chiseled boss typical of the Himmonian
00:24:40 --> 00:24:43 period. The authors believe the wall
00:24:43 --> 00:24:47 originally stood over 10 m high. Similar
00:24:47 --> 00:24:48 sections of the defensive system have
00:24:48 --> 00:24:50 been uncovered around Mount Zion, the
00:24:50 --> 00:24:52 city of David, the courtyard of the
00:24:52 --> 00:24:54 citadel, and along parts of the western
00:24:54 --> 00:24:57 boundary of Jerusalem, but none are as
00:24:57 --> 00:25:01 extensive or as well preserved.
00:25:01 --> 00:25:03 A new study by Noah, the National
00:25:03 --> 00:25:05 Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
00:25:05 --> 00:25:07 has debunked the idea that increases in
00:25:07 --> 00:25:10 atmospheric carbon dioxide levels will
00:25:10 --> 00:25:12 provide long-term improvements in plant
00:25:12 --> 00:25:15 growth. Skeptics Tim Mendum says while
00:25:15 --> 00:25:17 some increases in CO2 levels are
00:25:17 --> 00:25:20 beneficial for plants, too much does end
00:25:20 --> 00:25:21 up killing them.
00:25:21 --> 00:25:22 >> There's a lot of people saying that
00:25:22 --> 00:25:23 because we're putting out carbon dioxide
00:25:23 --> 00:25:25 as part of our sort of energy activities
00:25:25 --> 00:25:27 and that plants take in carbon dioxide
00:25:27 --> 00:25:29 to help them grow. If it's a good thing
00:25:29 --> 00:25:30 we're putting out the food that plants
00:25:30 --> 00:25:32 use. That's actually to a certain
00:25:32 --> 00:25:34 extent, a little extent, that's correct.
00:25:34 --> 00:25:36 Plants do take on carbon dioxide. And
00:25:36 --> 00:25:38 there can be times when they flourish in
00:25:38 --> 00:25:39 certain environments, but the trouble is
00:25:39 --> 00:25:41 you can have too much and plants can
00:25:41 --> 00:25:43 only absorb so much in the same way as
00:25:43 --> 00:25:45 the sea can only absorb so much. In
00:25:45 --> 00:25:47 fact, it's the sea which is absorbing
00:25:47 --> 00:25:49 most of the carbon dioxide that is
00:25:49 --> 00:25:50 absorbed. So the trees can only take so
00:25:50 --> 00:25:52 much they can bloom and blossom and then
00:25:52 --> 00:25:53 after a while it'll start to kill them.
00:25:53 --> 00:25:54 And then when it kills them, you get
00:25:54 --> 00:25:56 drought. So you get less trees and that
00:25:56 --> 00:25:57 sort of stuff. Also, of course, when a
00:25:57 --> 00:25:59 plant dies, it gives up the carbon
00:25:59 --> 00:26:01 dioxide it's taking in and storing,
00:26:01 --> 00:26:02 especially for trees and things like
00:26:02 --> 00:26:04 that. So, the argument that's being put
00:26:04 --> 00:26:06 forward by a lot of people saying that
00:26:06 --> 00:26:08 carbon dioxide is good for plants and
00:26:08 --> 00:26:09 things and therefore we'll reforest
00:26:10 --> 00:26:11 everything is wrong. And this has been
00:26:11 --> 00:26:14 shown both in laboratory work and in
00:26:14 --> 00:26:15 atmospheric work and satellite
00:26:15 --> 00:26:17 photography. So, what will happen is
00:26:17 --> 00:26:19 that plants will flourish and then die.
00:26:19 --> 00:26:20 And when they die, you get drought, you
00:26:20 --> 00:26:22 get low crop yield.
00:26:22 --> 00:26:24 >> That's Tim Mendum from Australian
00:26:24 --> 00:26:40 Skeptics.
00:26:40 --> 00:26:43 and that's the show for now. Spacetime
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00:27:26 --> 00:27:28 >> You've been listening to Spacetime with
00:27:28 --> 00:27:30 Stuart Garry. This has been another
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00:27:32 --> 00:27:35 byes.com.