Relativistic Doppler Beaming, Martian Water, and Fusion Confusion
In this engaging Q&A edition of Space Nuts , hosts Andrew Dunkley and Professor Fred Watson dive into a variety of thought-provoking listener questions that explore the depths of astronomy and space science. From the complexities of relativistic Doppler beaming in black holes to the intriguing evidence of water on Mars and the mysteries of nuclear fusion in the sun, this episode is brimming with cosmic insights and scientific clarity.
Episode Highlights:
- Relativistic Doppler Beaming: Ron from New York asks about the brightness differences in black hole accretion disks. Andrew and Fred explain how relativistic speeds affect light emission, leading to the phenomenon known as Doppler beaming and why we don't see the expected color shifts.
- Water on Mars: Sunny from California questions the geological evidence for water on Mars. The hosts discuss the findings from the Phoenix lander and the implications of briny water on the Martian surface, confirming that it was indeed water, albeit potentially different from what we know on Earth.
- Earth's Mass and Space Junk: Holt raises a fascinating question about how much material we can send into space before it impacts Earth's orbit. Andrew and Fred provide insights into the negligible mass we've launched compared to the Earth's total mass, reassuring listeners that our planet remains unaffected.
- Fusion Reactions in the Sun: Ken from Maroochydore seeks clarification on the fusion process in the sun, specifically regarding mass loss and binding energy. The hosts unravel the complexities of fusion, explaining how energy is produced and the significance of mass defects in nuclear reactions.
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Stay curious, keep looking up, and join us next time for more stellar insights and cosmic wonders. Until then, clear skies and happy stargazing.
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Episode link: https://play.headliner.app/episode/32708692?utm_source=youtube
00:00:00 --> 00:00:01 Hi there. Thanks for joining us. This is
00:00:02 --> 00:00:04 a Q&A edition of Space Nuts, where we
00:00:04 --> 00:00:07 talk astronomy and space science and we
00:00:07 --> 00:00:09 answer audience questions or we just say
00:00:09 --> 00:00:11 a lot of words that sound like answers,
00:00:11 --> 00:00:12 but then they'll check it later on the
00:00:12 --> 00:00:14 internet and realize we were just giving
00:00:14 --> 00:00:17 them an absolute load of CODs. Wallop.
00:00:17 --> 00:00:21 Uh, coming up today, uh, relativist.
00:00:21 --> 00:00:23 >> You're not supposed to be talking yet.
00:00:23 --> 00:00:25 Relativistic
00:00:25 --> 00:00:28 relativistic Doppler beaming. What on
00:00:28 --> 00:00:30 earth is that? We're about to find out.
00:00:30 --> 00:00:33 Uh, Sunny has sent us an audio question
00:00:33 --> 00:00:36 about Mars water. Is it water? Was it
00:00:36 --> 00:00:38 water? Could it have been something
00:00:38 --> 00:00:40 else? Uh, Halt is asking how much stuff
00:00:40 --> 00:00:42 we can send off the planet before the
00:00:42 --> 00:00:44 planet sort of, you know, starts to fall
00:00:44 --> 00:00:48 off itself and fusion reaction in the
00:00:48 --> 00:00:51 sun. We will dispel that confusion very,
00:00:51 --> 00:00:54 very soon on this episode of Space Nuts.
00:00:54 --> 00:00:59 >> 15 seconds. Guidance is internal. 10 9
00:00:59 --> 00:01:00 ignition sequence start.
00:01:00 --> 00:01:01 >> Space nuts.
00:01:01 --> 00:01:04 >> 5 4 3 2
00:01:04 --> 00:01:06 >> 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1
00:01:06 --> 00:01:07 >> Space nuts.
00:01:08 --> 00:01:11 >> Astronauts report. It feels good.
00:01:11 --> 00:01:12 >> Professor Fred Watson, astronomer at
00:01:12 --> 00:01:14 large, is here. You've already heard his
00:01:14 --> 00:01:17 voice. Hello, Fred.
00:01:17 --> 00:01:19 >> Nice to see you, Andrew. I'm always
00:01:19 --> 00:01:21 reminded of um and you might know about
00:01:21 --> 00:01:23 this as well, even though our listeners
00:01:23 --> 00:01:25 are all too young to remember, but on
00:01:25 --> 00:01:27 the Goon Show, there was once an episode
00:01:27 --> 00:01:30 where Eckles came on before he was
00:01:30 --> 00:01:33 supposed to. Uh and had to make the
00:01:33 --> 00:01:36 comment, "I'm not here yet."
00:01:36 --> 00:01:38 >> I remember that. Yes.
00:01:38 --> 00:01:41 >> I'm not here yet. Uh, which reminds me
00:01:41 --> 00:01:44 of a famous incident on ABC radio where
00:01:44 --> 00:01:47 I worked for 22 years, uh, where a, um,
00:01:47 --> 00:01:49 news reader was trying to do the
00:01:49 --> 00:01:51 bulletin,
00:01:51 --> 00:01:52 uh, but they were halfway through a live
00:01:52 --> 00:01:55 interview with Spike Milligan.
00:01:55 --> 00:01:58 Spike kept interrupting at the end of
00:01:58 --> 00:02:00 every sentence with and Spike Milligan.
00:02:00 --> 00:02:02 And Spike Milligan. And so when the
00:02:02 --> 00:02:04 story finished, the news reader said da
00:02:04 --> 00:02:07 da da da and Spike Milligan. He got He
00:02:08 --> 00:02:10 got fired for that.
00:02:10 --> 00:02:11 >> Yeah,
00:02:11 --> 00:02:13 >> he got fired for that.
00:02:13 --> 00:02:14 >> It's one of the funniest pieces of radio
00:02:14 --> 00:02:17 you will ever hear. Look it up online,
00:02:17 --> 00:02:19 but he got canned
00:02:19 --> 00:02:21 >> probably. Yeah. Um,
00:02:21 --> 00:02:21 >> yeah,
00:02:21 --> 00:02:24 >> that was in the old BBC days, probably.
00:02:24 --> 00:02:26 >> Oh, well, yeah, probably. Well, yeah,
00:02:26 --> 00:02:28 the times have changed.
00:02:28 --> 00:02:30 >> Yes, rather.
00:02:30 --> 00:02:32 >> Uh, let's uh get into some questions,
00:02:32 --> 00:02:34 Fred. And I've got our first one here
00:02:34 --> 00:02:37 from Ron who is in upstate New York. Uh
00:02:37 --> 00:02:38 he says, "Spring's just around the
00:02:38 --> 00:02:41 corner." He says, "Hope all is well down
00:02:41 --> 00:02:43 under." Well, if you like wind. Yeah, it
00:02:43 --> 00:02:45 is. It's going great. It's been pretty
00:02:45 --> 00:02:47 windy here lately. Uh I have a question
00:02:47 --> 00:02:50 about relativistic Doppler beaming that
00:02:50 --> 00:02:53 we see on a black hole's accretion disc,
00:02:53 --> 00:02:56 which causes the side moving towards us
00:02:56 --> 00:02:58 to be brighter than the side moving away
00:02:58 --> 00:03:01 from us. Why are we not seeing blue and
00:03:01 --> 00:03:04 red Doppler shifts in the color of the
00:03:04 --> 00:03:07 light in those respective regions? Uh
00:03:07 --> 00:03:08 there's so much uh and thanks so much
00:03:08 --> 00:03:11 for the great podcast. It is our
00:03:11 --> 00:03:13 pleasure. It is our pleasure. Thanks for
00:03:13 --> 00:03:14 the question, Ron.
00:03:14 --> 00:03:18 >> It's a good question. Um and um there's
00:03:18 --> 00:03:25 the answer. Uh Jordy. Jordy. Yeah. Uh so
00:03:25 --> 00:03:28 we do we do see the Doppler shift. Um
00:03:28 --> 00:03:32 but the the the reason why we don't talk
00:03:32 --> 00:03:35 about that is because this radiation
00:03:35 --> 00:03:39 that's being beamed out is a continuum
00:03:39 --> 00:03:41 radiation. By that I mean it's at all
00:03:41 --> 00:03:43 wavelengths.
00:03:43 --> 00:03:48 Uh so to to make Doppler work just the
00:03:48 --> 00:03:50 backstory here if you've got something
00:03:50 --> 00:03:54 coming towards you it's light is shifted
00:03:54 --> 00:03:55 to the blue. If it's moving away from
00:03:55 --> 00:03:58 you, its light is shifted to the red.
00:03:58 --> 00:04:02 Um, but you need a feature in order to
00:04:02 --> 00:04:05 detect that. Uh, and some sources of
00:04:05 --> 00:04:09 light, for example, um, it actually even
00:04:09 --> 00:04:10 works with LEDs does this. But if you
00:04:10 --> 00:04:13 think of the old, um, orange sodium
00:04:13 --> 00:04:15 lights, which we used to see, the low
00:04:15 --> 00:04:17 pressure sodium lights, they emit all
00:04:17 --> 00:04:20 their light at one wavelength, uh, which
00:04:20 --> 00:04:22 is called the sodium D line for
00:04:22 --> 00:04:25 historical reasons. And so if you if you
00:04:25 --> 00:04:27 had a sodium lamp coming towards you,
00:04:27 --> 00:04:30 then that peak of wavelength would be
00:04:30 --> 00:04:32 moved to the blue end of the spectrum.
00:04:32 --> 00:04:33 If it was going away from you, it'd be
00:04:33 --> 00:04:35 moved to the red end of the spectrum,
00:04:35 --> 00:04:40 the sodium line. But in order to so so
00:04:40 --> 00:04:43 that happens for all moving objects, but
00:04:43 --> 00:04:44 in order for you to be able to detect
00:04:44 --> 00:04:48 that it's moving, you need a discrete uh
00:04:48 --> 00:04:51 peak of light or radiation. Uh, and in
00:04:51 --> 00:04:54 in the case of a moving sodium lamp,
00:04:54 --> 00:04:56 that's it. The peak of the sodium sodium
00:04:56 --> 00:04:58 emission line. If you've got a
00:04:58 --> 00:05:00 continuum, a spectrum that goes all the
00:05:00 --> 00:05:03 way from blue to red or violet to red.
00:05:03 --> 00:05:05 Yes, it can be moved uh by the Doppler
00:05:05 --> 00:05:07 shift, but you you don't see it. You
00:05:07 --> 00:05:10 don't detect it. Uh and so in the case
00:05:10 --> 00:05:13 of the material uh swirling around a
00:05:13 --> 00:05:17 black hole uh in the accretion disc
00:05:17 --> 00:05:21 exactly as Ron says it u it actually
00:05:21 --> 00:05:23 under go something called relativistic
00:05:23 --> 00:05:26 Doppler beaming and that's that because
00:05:26 --> 00:05:29 this stuff is moving so fast it's really
00:05:29 --> 00:05:31 not far short of the speed of light the
00:05:31 --> 00:05:34 path of the photons is altered and they
00:05:34 --> 00:05:37 tend to cluster around the direction in
00:05:37 --> 00:05:39 which the movement is taken. place and
00:05:39 --> 00:05:42 that's why uh an accretion disc is
00:05:42 --> 00:05:44 brighter on one side than it is on the
00:05:44 --> 00:05:45 other. It's brighter in the side that's
00:05:45 --> 00:05:48 coming toward you because of this
00:05:48 --> 00:05:50 relativistic Doppler beaming. It's quite
00:05:50 --> 00:05:52 an esoteric topic. I'm quite amazed that
00:05:52 --> 00:05:54 we're covering this on Space Nuts, but
00:05:54 --> 00:05:58 it's uh it's really good stuff.
00:05:58 --> 00:05:59 >> Thank you, Ron, because you're clearly
00:05:59 --> 00:06:01 ve very well verssed in this stuff as
00:06:01 --> 00:06:03 well. I mean, when you look at the
00:06:03 --> 00:06:06 images of black holes that we now have,
00:06:06 --> 00:06:09 you you're looking at a an orange
00:06:09 --> 00:06:11 frosted donut basically, uh, that that's
00:06:11 --> 00:06:13 that's the primary color, the the
00:06:13 --> 00:06:16 orange, but it is brighter on one side.
00:06:16 --> 00:06:17 >> Yeah.
00:06:17 --> 00:06:18 >> Yes. There there are bite spots in it.
00:06:18 --> 00:06:20 That's correct. Yeah. And some of that
00:06:20 --> 00:06:22 will be due to relativistic beaming.
00:06:22 --> 00:06:23 Yeah.
00:06:23 --> 00:06:26 >> Okay. And, uh, how many have they taken
00:06:26 --> 00:06:28 now? I think there's there's been maybe
00:06:28 --> 00:06:29 three. Three or four.
00:06:30 --> 00:06:32 >> Yes. Uh so we've got uh M52 was the
00:06:32 --> 00:06:35 first is that right Messier 52 uh the
00:06:36 --> 00:06:39 center of our galaxy uh Sagittarius A
00:06:39 --> 00:06:43 star but also M52 done again with
00:06:43 --> 00:06:45 polarization so we could see the the
00:06:45 --> 00:06:47 magnetism in it. I think that's the way
00:06:47 --> 00:06:49 it worked.
00:06:49 --> 00:06:50 >> Okay. Um
00:06:50 --> 00:06:52 >> these were with the event horizon
00:06:52 --> 00:06:53 telescope
00:06:53 --> 00:06:55 >> because I've got another one here that's
00:06:55 --> 00:06:57 uh of M87.
00:06:57 --> 00:06:59 >> Okay. So there is another object here
00:06:59 --> 00:07:00 >> that's yeah that's the third one I was
00:07:00 --> 00:07:02 thinking of I didn't know they done M52
00:07:02 --> 00:07:06 again but yeah the technologies reached
00:07:06 --> 00:07:08 a point now where we can actually image
00:07:08 --> 00:07:09 these things they're not photos though
00:07:09 --> 00:07:12 are they these are um gathered through
00:07:12 --> 00:07:13 radio spectrometry of
00:07:13 --> 00:07:16 >> yeah they are there it's a basically a
00:07:16 --> 00:07:19 planetized array of radio telescopes
00:07:19 --> 00:07:22 that um conspire together uh in very
00:07:22 --> 00:07:26 cunning ways um to make these images to
00:07:26 --> 00:07:28 synthesize the
00:07:28 --> 00:07:31 Fantastic stuff. Yeah, Ron, thanks so
00:07:31 --> 00:07:33 much for the question. Really enjoyed
00:07:33 --> 00:07:35 that one and uh hopefully hopefully
00:07:35 --> 00:07:37 we'll hear from you again. Our next
00:07:37 --> 00:07:40 question comes from Sunny. What a great
00:07:40 --> 00:07:42 name for somebody who listens to an
00:07:42 --> 00:07:44 astronomy podcast.
00:07:44 --> 00:07:46 >> Hello, Space Nuts. This is Sunny Skies
00:07:46 --> 00:07:49 from Southern California,
00:07:49 --> 00:07:51 Long Beach. In fact, my question for you
00:07:51 --> 00:07:56 today is regarding geological formations
00:07:56 --> 00:07:59 on Mars which indicate there was large
00:07:59 --> 00:08:02 quantities of water for a long period of
00:08:02 --> 00:08:04 time
00:08:04 --> 00:08:06 similar to something we'd see on Earth.
00:08:06 --> 00:08:09 Is there any other corroborative
00:08:09 --> 00:08:11 information or data to support that it
00:08:11 --> 00:08:13 actually was water and not some other
00:08:13 --> 00:08:16 crazy liquid that we don't have here
00:08:16 --> 00:08:20 possibly on Earth? Love the podcast.
00:08:20 --> 00:08:22 Stay sunny.
00:08:22 --> 00:08:24 >> We're trying to. It's coming into winter
00:08:24 --> 00:08:26 here, so um yeah, it won't be sunny for
00:08:26 --> 00:08:28 long. Uh Sunny, lovely to hear from you.
00:08:28 --> 00:08:29 That's a good question. Uh because we
00:08:29 --> 00:08:31 we've got a lot of evidence that shows
00:08:31 --> 00:08:33 there was water, rivers, oceans,
00:08:33 --> 00:08:37 streams, um you know, um ces pits,
00:08:37 --> 00:08:41 whatever you want to call them on Mars,
00:08:41 --> 00:08:44 but that's all gone. Um but we are, you
00:08:44 --> 00:08:47 know, the telltale signs are there. Um,
00:08:47 --> 00:08:50 Sunny's question is, was it really water
00:08:50 --> 00:08:52 or could it have been something else? We
00:08:52 --> 00:08:56 do know there are other liquid oceans in
00:08:56 --> 00:08:58 in our solar system that are not water.
00:08:58 --> 00:09:00 >> Yes, we do. That's right.
00:09:00 --> 00:09:02 >> Um, and there's more than one kind of
00:09:02 --> 00:09:04 water, which is also a a factor to
00:09:04 --> 00:09:07 consider. So, um, yeah. Could he be on
00:09:07 --> 00:09:09 to something or are we absolutely dead
00:09:09 --> 00:09:12 set certain that Mars had water?
00:09:12 --> 00:09:15 >> I think water perhaps. Yes, that's that
00:09:15 --> 00:09:17 and that's why uh for that reason we
00:09:17 --> 00:09:20 still we can still see it. So um and
00:09:20 --> 00:09:23 I'll explain that in a second. Yes. Uh I
00:09:23 --> 00:09:27 I guess excuse me Sunonny's point is
00:09:27 --> 00:09:30 >> um we see evidence of liquid. Uh could
00:09:30 --> 00:09:32 it have been something peculiar that we
00:09:32 --> 00:09:36 don't know about? And in a way it is um
00:09:36 --> 00:09:42 because uh we have seen evidence on Mars
00:09:42 --> 00:09:44 from principally from the Phoenix uh
00:09:44 --> 00:09:48 lander which was on the which is near
00:09:48 --> 00:09:50 the northern polar regions the northern
00:09:50 --> 00:09:53 Arctic of Mars um which actually
00:09:53 --> 00:09:55 analyzed chemically some of these
00:09:55 --> 00:09:57 materials. So you might remember Andrew
00:09:57 --> 00:09:59 Phoenix had a little backhoe. It was
00:09:59 --> 00:10:00 didn't have any wheels. It was
00:10:00 --> 00:10:02 stationary, but it had a backhoe with
00:10:02 --> 00:10:05 which it could scrape away the top
00:10:05 --> 00:10:07 surface of the soil of Mars. And it
00:10:07 --> 00:10:09 didn't have to scrape much before it got
00:10:09 --> 00:10:13 to solid ice. Um, and the first hint
00:10:13 --> 00:10:16 that this was ice uh was in the color.
00:10:16 --> 00:10:19 It was white. The second hint was that
00:10:19 --> 00:10:21 some scraps of this material that had
00:10:21 --> 00:10:25 been dug up by the backhoe um basically
00:10:25 --> 00:10:28 disappeared after a few days. they had
00:10:28 --> 00:10:31 turned directly into vapor. Uh they'
00:10:31 --> 00:10:33 sublimed and that's exactly what you'd
00:10:33 --> 00:10:36 expect for water ice to do. But more
00:10:36 --> 00:10:39 especially that backhoe wasn't just
00:10:39 --> 00:10:41 there to scrape things. It was to pour
00:10:41 --> 00:10:45 the things it had dug up into a chemical
00:10:45 --> 00:10:49 analysis. And that's the smoking gun. uh
00:10:49 --> 00:10:50 because the chemical analysis
00:10:50 --> 00:10:53 demonstrated that yes this was water uh
00:10:53 --> 00:10:56 water ice solid ice and that's there in
00:10:56 --> 00:10:58 large quantities under the surface of
00:10:58 --> 00:11:01 the Arctic regions of Mars uh and we
00:11:01 --> 00:11:03 know it's there in the on the surface
00:11:03 --> 00:11:04 actually in the polar caps of Mars and
00:11:04 --> 00:11:06 we know it's water ice from there
00:11:06 --> 00:11:08 because it's got the spectral signature
00:11:08 --> 00:11:11 of water ice um but the reason why I say
00:11:11 --> 00:11:14 it could be a bit different is that we
00:11:14 --> 00:11:17 believe that um this water is very
00:11:17 --> 00:11:18 briney
00:11:18 --> 00:11:20 that it's rich in what are called
00:11:20 --> 00:11:23 pchlorates which actually lower the the
00:11:23 --> 00:11:25 freezing point. Um and there there's
00:11:25 --> 00:11:27 evidence that for a short time there
00:11:27 --> 00:11:30 were droplets of water actually on the
00:11:30 --> 00:11:33 legs of the Phoenix lander probably made
00:11:33 --> 00:11:36 of ice that had been melted during uh
00:11:36 --> 00:11:39 the descent uh vaporized condensed out
00:11:39 --> 00:11:41 onto the onto the legs of the lander and
00:11:41 --> 00:11:44 stayed liquid for a little time uh while
00:11:44 --> 00:11:46 the heat was while the temperature was
00:11:46 --> 00:11:49 high enough. So um all the all the
00:11:49 --> 00:11:51 evidence points to those oceans having
00:11:51 --> 00:11:53 been made of water. Although it might be
00:11:53 --> 00:11:56 very briny, it might be chemically
00:11:56 --> 00:11:58 different uh from from what we
00:11:58 --> 00:12:00 experience on Earth. But you you've only
00:12:00 --> 00:12:02 to look at the different forms that
00:12:02 --> 00:12:03 water comes in on Earth when you've got
00:12:03 --> 00:12:05 some of them where you've got cyanide
00:12:05 --> 00:12:08 dissolved in it in some of these pools,
00:12:08 --> 00:12:11 you know, in in Yeuseite and places like
00:12:11 --> 00:12:14 that. So, I think uh I think it's a good
00:12:14 --> 00:12:17 question, but I think basically H2O is
00:12:17 --> 00:12:19 what makes up the contents of those
00:12:19 --> 00:12:20 former oceans.
00:12:20 --> 00:12:22 >> I think what's interesting about Mars
00:12:22 --> 00:12:27 water is that um it's it's heavier than
00:12:27 --> 00:12:30 Earth water. It's got a a much higher
00:12:30 --> 00:12:34 ratio of isotopes um heavy isotopes of
00:12:34 --> 00:12:37 hydrogen I think is which is which is um
00:12:37 --> 00:12:39 you know heavy water not the stuff out
00:12:39 --> 00:12:42 of the nuclear reactors but um
00:12:42 --> 00:12:44 >> you natural water.
00:12:44 --> 00:12:46 >> Yes, that's right. It's it's it's
00:12:46 --> 00:12:47 similar to to what was used in the
00:12:47 --> 00:12:50 nuclear reactors. So it's it's um
00:12:50 --> 00:12:54 hydrogen with an extra neutron I guess.
00:12:54 --> 00:12:57 Is that right? To make dutyium. Uh and
00:12:57 --> 00:13:00 um and yes, you're right that the ratio
00:13:00 --> 00:13:02 of uh and once again this comes from
00:13:02 --> 00:13:05 analysis by machines like Phoenix on the
00:13:05 --> 00:13:07 surface of Mars. Um there's a higher
00:13:07 --> 00:13:10 ratio of I think that's the way around
00:13:10 --> 00:13:12 it is a higher ratio of heavy water to
00:13:12 --> 00:13:15 normal water on Mars than there is on
00:13:15 --> 00:13:17 Earth. I think that's the case.
00:13:17 --> 00:13:20 >> Yeah. And the other thing um Sunny is
00:13:20 --> 00:13:22 you couldn't drink it in its current
00:13:22 --> 00:13:25 state. It's It would need to be cleaned
00:13:25 --> 00:13:26 up a bit.
00:13:26 --> 00:13:29 >> Yeah. Do you remember we once uh we once
00:13:29 --> 00:13:31 talked about how much heavy water you
00:13:31 --> 00:13:33 could drink and still survive? And it's
00:13:33 --> 00:13:35 I can't it's a fair bit actually. It was
00:13:35 --> 00:13:36 a few percent.
00:13:36 --> 00:13:37 >> Yes. But
00:13:37 --> 00:13:40 >> but if you drank it for long enough, it
00:13:40 --> 00:13:43 would start you'd start to basically
00:13:43 --> 00:13:47 >> fall apart. literally fall apart
00:13:47 --> 00:13:49 >> because the the the dutyium wouldn't you
00:13:50 --> 00:13:52 know your body's we're not built for it
00:13:52 --> 00:13:53 basically.
00:13:53 --> 00:13:54 >> Yes. Exactly.
00:13:54 --> 00:13:55 >> If if you if we were to find a water
00:13:55 --> 00:14:00 world that was 100% D2O rather than H2O
00:14:00 --> 00:14:02 or we couldn't live there.
00:14:02 --> 00:14:04 >> It would kill us.
00:14:04 --> 00:14:05 >> Yeah.
00:14:05 --> 00:14:08 >> Even though it's water just not
00:14:08 --> 00:14:09 water heavy heavy water. Yes.
00:14:10 --> 00:14:12 >> Yes. So your point is very very good
00:14:12 --> 00:14:14 Sunny. there there there's a bit more to
00:14:14 --> 00:14:17 it than meets the eye. And uh yes, it is
00:14:17 --> 00:14:19 water on Mars, but it's not the same as
00:14:19 --> 00:14:22 our water. It's close, but it's not
00:14:22 --> 00:14:25 quite the same. Thanks for the question.
00:14:26 --> 00:14:28 And uh hopefully hopefully we'll hear
00:14:28 --> 00:14:29 from you again, Sunny. Great question,
00:14:29 --> 00:14:32 that one. This is Space Nuts with Andrew
00:14:32 --> 00:14:36 Dunley and Professor Fred Watson.
00:14:36 --> 00:14:38 Let's take a break from the show to tell
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00:16:10 --> 00:16:12 Roger, you're here. Also,
00:16:12 --> 00:16:13 >> Space Nuts.
00:16:13 --> 00:16:15 >> I like this next question from Halt
00:16:15 --> 00:16:19 because it's it's it's so simple and yet
00:16:19 --> 00:16:21 it's it's something that that people
00:16:21 --> 00:16:25 wonder about. uh because we have reached
00:16:25 --> 00:16:26 a point where we've been going, you
00:16:26 --> 00:16:29 know, sending stuff into space for for
00:16:29 --> 00:16:32 decades now. And he goes on to say,
00:16:32 --> 00:16:34 "We've sent several objects beyond
00:16:34 --> 00:16:36 Earth's gravitational field. How much
00:16:36 --> 00:16:39 can we send before it affects Earth's
00:16:39 --> 00:16:41 orbit?" That comes from Halt. I don't
00:16:41 --> 00:16:43 know where you're from, but uh great
00:16:43 --> 00:16:45 question, Halt. Love this one. Uh yeah,
00:16:45 --> 00:16:46 we we're bas basically filling the
00:16:46 --> 00:16:50 universe with our own junk. Um, but all
00:16:50 --> 00:16:52 of that stuff that we're sending out
00:16:52 --> 00:16:55 there comes off planet in one way or
00:16:55 --> 00:16:57 another. Um, so yeah, what could be the
00:16:58 --> 00:17:00 long-term effect?
00:17:00 --> 00:17:03 Yeah, great question. So, um, the
00:17:03 --> 00:17:05 figures are, and I'm pulling this from
00:17:05 --> 00:17:08 my memory, but I think this is right. In
00:17:08 --> 00:17:10 orbit, we have something like I think
00:17:10 --> 00:17:14 it's about 11 tons of stuff.
00:17:14 --> 00:17:14 >> Is that all?
00:17:14 --> 00:17:18 >> Um, yeah, something like that. Uh that's
00:17:18 --> 00:17:21 with uh all of the spacecraft that have
00:17:21 --> 00:17:23 been launched. Remember these spacecraft
00:17:23 --> 00:17:25 are made of very light materials because
00:17:25 --> 00:17:27 you can't you don't want heavy stuff
00:17:27 --> 00:17:29 being sent into orbit because you're
00:17:29 --> 00:17:31 wasting fuel. The lighter you can make
00:17:31 --> 00:17:34 your spacecraft, the less fuel you need.
00:17:34 --> 00:17:36 Uh so it's all about economics. But I
00:17:36 --> 00:17:39 think it's about 11 tons in orbit.
00:17:39 --> 00:17:41 Um and when you look at spacecraft that
00:17:41 --> 00:17:44 have gone beyond that, it's vanishingly
00:17:44 --> 00:17:46 small. um you know it's probably less
00:17:46 --> 00:17:48 than 100 tons. It might be about 100
00:17:48 --> 00:17:51 tons for stuff that's gone out beyond
00:17:51 --> 00:17:56 Earth orbit. So uh that when you compare
00:17:56 --> 00:17:59 it with the mass of the Earth, which I
00:17:59 --> 00:18:01 can't remember off hand, but it's a lot.
00:18:01 --> 00:18:04 It's one Earth mass actually in units.
00:18:04 --> 00:18:06 Uh and um you know, but it's it's
00:18:06 --> 00:18:08 gazillions of tons compared with what
00:18:08 --> 00:18:12 we've put into space. So um it's not
00:18:12 --> 00:18:14 going to affect the Earth's orbit. And
00:18:14 --> 00:18:17 actually the orbit itself, even if we
00:18:17 --> 00:18:19 put, you know, a significant fraction of
00:18:20 --> 00:18:22 the Earth's mass into orbit around the
00:18:22 --> 00:18:24 Earth, it wouldn't necessarily affect
00:18:24 --> 00:18:26 the Earth's orbit because it tends to
00:18:26 --> 00:18:29 need an interaction between two objects
00:18:29 --> 00:18:31 to change the orbit of something, a
00:18:32 --> 00:18:34 cloud from another planet or something
00:18:34 --> 00:18:36 like that, that would change the orbit.
00:18:36 --> 00:18:38 All right?
00:18:38 --> 00:18:40 Whereas whereas just doing something
00:18:40 --> 00:18:42 that has the same center of mass as the
00:18:42 --> 00:18:44 Earth does, if I can put it that way,
00:18:44 --> 00:18:46 doesn't necessarily change the orbit at
00:18:46 --> 00:18:48 all. But even notwithstanding that,
00:18:48 --> 00:18:50 we're no we're nowhere near anything
00:18:50 --> 00:18:52 that would actually affect the Earth's
00:18:52 --> 00:18:53 well-being.
00:18:54 --> 00:18:58 >> The mass of the Earth is 519*
00:18:58 --> 00:19:02 10 24th power kilogram.
00:19:02 --> 00:19:04 >> Yep.
00:19:04 --> 00:19:07 10^ the 24th power kilogram. That sounds
00:19:07 --> 00:19:08 right.
00:19:08 --> 00:19:10 >> It's a lot.
00:19:10 --> 00:19:13 >> I seem to remember that the sun is
00:19:13 --> 00:19:16 something it's about 10^ the 27 kg I
00:19:16 --> 00:19:18 think or it could be tons. I can't
00:19:18 --> 00:19:20 remember but it's
00:19:20 --> 00:19:21 >> I can look that up too.
00:19:21 --> 00:19:24 >> Yeah. See mass of the sun. I think it's
00:19:24 --> 00:19:26 >> 1
00:19:26 --> 00:19:29 10 times 10^ the 30th power kilograms.
00:19:29 --> 00:19:31 >> Okay. That's that's kilograms. Okay. So
00:19:31 --> 00:19:33 it's 10 27 tons.
00:19:33 --> 00:19:36 Yeah, because this Yeah, that's what it
00:19:36 --> 00:19:40 means. One more one more thing that Halt
00:19:40 --> 00:19:43 might be interested to know is that um
00:19:43 --> 00:19:44 you know you've you've given us the
00:19:44 --> 00:19:47 numbers of how much material
00:19:47 --> 00:19:49 >> in terms of weight has has left the
00:19:49 --> 00:19:53 planet which is a negligible amount but
00:19:53 --> 00:19:55 scientists estimate that roughly 100
00:19:55 --> 00:19:58 metric tons of cosmic dust like
00:19:58 --> 00:20:00 micrometeorites enters the earth's
00:20:00 --> 00:20:01 atmosphere
00:20:01 --> 00:20:01 >> y
00:20:01 --> 00:20:02 >> every day.
00:20:02 --> 00:20:03 >> Every day. That's right.
00:20:04 --> 00:20:05 >> Every day.
00:20:05 --> 00:20:07 >> Yeah. So, we're actually getting
00:20:07 --> 00:20:09 heavier.
00:20:09 --> 00:20:10 >> Yeah, we are. Yes.
00:20:10 --> 00:20:12 >> Or more massive, depending on which way
00:20:12 --> 00:20:14 you want to look at it.
00:20:14 --> 00:20:16 >> It's it more massive is the correct
00:20:16 --> 00:20:19 term. You're quite right. To be heavier,
00:20:19 --> 00:20:20 you need to be in the gravitational
00:20:20 --> 00:20:22 field of something.
00:20:22 --> 00:20:24 We are in the sun's gravitational field,
00:20:24 --> 00:20:26 but we wouldn't think of it that way.
00:20:26 --> 00:20:29 >> No. No. So
00:20:29 --> 00:20:30 when you when you think about it, what
00:20:30 --> 00:20:33 we're what we're kicking out of our
00:20:33 --> 00:20:35 planet, our gravitational field
00:20:35 --> 00:20:38 >> is being replaced like
00:20:38 --> 00:20:38 >> Yes.
00:20:39 --> 00:20:40 >> by much more.
00:20:40 --> 00:20:43 >> Yeah. Exactly. So thank you for pointing
00:20:43 --> 00:20:45 that out.
00:20:45 --> 00:20:47 >> It's been very useful today.
00:20:47 --> 00:20:51 >> It's about 100 um 100 tons uh or
00:20:51 --> 00:20:53 thereabouts. It's a and it's just
00:20:53 --> 00:20:54 meteoritic material.
00:20:54 --> 00:20:56 >> Yes. that really usually contributes to
00:20:56 --> 00:20:57 the Earth's atmosphere because it gets
00:20:57 --> 00:20:59 vaporized most of it.
00:20:59 --> 00:21:02 >> To to um quote a famous Scottish
00:21:02 --> 00:21:04 astronomer, it's space clap
00:21:04 --> 00:21:07 >> is what it is.
00:21:07 --> 00:21:08 >> I don't know who that is. I think he
00:21:08 --> 00:21:10 used to be on my staff at the
00:21:10 --> 00:21:12 observatory.
00:21:12 --> 00:21:14 >> Oh dear. All right, Halt, great
00:21:14 --> 00:21:16 question. Um made made for some
00:21:16 --> 00:21:18 interesting discussion and and made me
00:21:18 --> 00:21:20 sound useful for a brief second. Thanks
00:21:20 --> 00:21:23 for sending it in. Our final question
00:21:23 --> 00:21:26 comes from Ken. Hi Andrew and Fred. Ken
00:21:26 --> 00:21:28 from Maruchidor. Longtime listener and
00:21:28 --> 00:21:30 fan and love the way you make complex
00:21:30 --> 00:21:33 issues sound so simple.
00:21:33 --> 00:21:35 I'm trying to understand the basic
00:21:35 --> 00:21:37 fusion reaction that both me and my
00:21:38 --> 00:21:40 accountant are struggling with.
00:21:40 --> 00:21:43 The basic fusion reaction in our sun and
00:21:43 --> 00:21:45 all main sequence stars converts
00:21:45 --> 00:21:49 hydrogen to helium to create energy.
00:21:49 --> 00:21:52 To summarize the reaction for hydrogen
00:21:52 --> 00:21:55 nuclei that is four protons go through
00:21:55 --> 00:21:58 two steps to create one helium nucleus
00:21:58 --> 00:22:01 containing two neutrons and two protons.
00:22:01 --> 00:22:04 Additionally gamma rays neutrinos and
00:22:04 --> 00:22:07 posetrons are released.
00:22:07 --> 00:22:09 My astronomy textbooks say that about
00:22:09 --> 00:22:12 600 million tons of hydrogen are
00:22:12 --> 00:22:15 converted to 596 million tons of helium
00:22:15 --> 00:22:18 every second in our sun.
00:22:18 --> 00:22:20 The 4 million tons is converted to
00:22:20 --> 00:22:25 energy as per E= MC².
00:22:25 --> 00:22:27 If neutrons had a lower mass than
00:22:27 --> 00:22:30 protons, it would make all perfect
00:22:30 --> 00:22:33 sense. But they don't. They have a
00:22:33 --> 00:22:36 higher mass. So the mass of the helium
00:22:36 --> 00:22:38 nucleus is higher than the mass of the
00:22:38 --> 00:22:41 four protons.
00:22:41 --> 00:22:43 All the explanations I've read sound
00:22:43 --> 00:22:46 pretty dodgy. And my accountant says he
00:22:46 --> 00:22:47 could never get away with such
00:22:47 --> 00:22:50 explanations with the tax department.
00:22:50 --> 00:22:52 Could you please explain the devil in
00:22:52 --> 00:22:55 the detail that I'm missing?
00:22:55 --> 00:22:57 >> Thank you, Kenji. He did his homework on
00:22:57 --> 00:22:58 that one, didn't he?
00:22:58 --> 00:22:58 >> Wow.
00:22:58 --> 00:23:02 >> He did. He's absolutely right, too.
00:23:02 --> 00:23:04 >> And and was in such a terrible part of
00:23:04 --> 00:23:07 the world there up in Maruchi door. What
00:23:07 --> 00:23:10 a what a hole.
00:23:10 --> 00:23:15 Um, I don't think I I think uh I think
00:23:15 --> 00:23:18 Ken's going to find this answer that I'm
00:23:18 --> 00:23:21 going to give him pretty dodgy as well.
00:23:21 --> 00:23:25 Uh because but it is the correct answer.
00:23:25 --> 00:23:29 Um because it turns out that unlike uh
00:23:29 --> 00:23:32 Ken's accountant who can do sort of
00:23:32 --> 00:23:36 arithmetic because dollars don't change
00:23:36 --> 00:23:38 their mass you know randomly.
00:23:38 --> 00:23:39 >> Yeah.
00:23:39 --> 00:23:42 >> You can't do the same with subatomic
00:23:42 --> 00:23:43 particles.
00:23:44 --> 00:23:47 um because you have to look at other
00:23:47 --> 00:23:49 factors and the factor that comes into
00:23:49 --> 00:23:51 being in this case and I'm sure this is
00:23:51 --> 00:23:53 what uh what Ken was referring to when
00:23:54 --> 00:23:56 he talked about dodgy answers is
00:23:56 --> 00:24:00 something called the binding energy. Um,
00:24:00 --> 00:24:04 so he's right that the helium 4 that's
00:24:04 --> 00:24:08 formed by the four hydrogen atoms should
00:24:08 --> 00:24:12 have slightly more in mass. Uh, should
00:24:12 --> 00:24:16 have slightly more mass than uh than uh
00:24:16 --> 00:24:19 the four hydrogen atoms. Um,
00:24:19 --> 00:24:23 that's because you're uh you're doing
00:24:23 --> 00:24:24 doing the calculation. I beg you,
00:24:24 --> 00:24:26 pardon. Um, it's the other way around.
00:24:26 --> 00:24:28 it should should have slightly less mass
00:24:28 --> 00:24:30 in order to give you the energy that
00:24:30 --> 00:24:32 makes the sun shine. But it actually
00:24:32 --> 00:24:35 turns out to be the other way round. And
00:24:35 --> 00:24:37 the difference is what I've just called
00:24:37 --> 00:24:39 it's something called binding energy. Uh
00:24:39 --> 00:24:41 the difference is the binding energy in
00:24:41 --> 00:24:43 the helium nucleus which is called a
00:24:44 --> 00:24:47 mass defect which lowers the actual mass
00:24:47 --> 00:24:51 of the helium nucleus slightly. So what
00:24:51 --> 00:24:53 what what Ken's saying is that when you
00:24:53 --> 00:24:55 add up the masses of all these
00:24:55 --> 00:24:58 particles, you get something that's more
00:24:58 --> 00:25:00 massive than what you started. And it
00:25:00 --> 00:25:02 and you should expect it to be less
00:25:02 --> 00:25:04 massive than what you started because of
00:25:04 --> 00:25:07 that the fact that you've got this um uh
00:25:07 --> 00:25:09 large amount of mass being turned into
00:25:09 --> 00:25:13 radiation. That's how the sun shines. Uh
00:25:13 --> 00:25:15 but in fact, it is less than what you
00:25:15 --> 00:25:17 started with because of this mass
00:25:17 --> 00:25:19 defect, the binding energy. there's an
00:25:19 --> 00:25:22 energy that holds uh nuclei together
00:25:22 --> 00:25:25 which actually effectively contributes
00:25:25 --> 00:25:27 to their mass because of exactly what
00:25:27 --> 00:25:30 Ken said, E= MC². And I hope you don't
00:25:30 --> 00:25:32 think that sounds too dodgy, Ken, but
00:25:32 --> 00:25:34 that's the answer.
00:25:34 --> 00:25:36 >> Yeah, Ken and you and your accountant
00:25:36 --> 00:25:38 can relax now. The numbers do add up.
00:25:38 --> 00:25:40 They're just a bit weird,
00:25:40 --> 00:25:43 >> as my grand would say.
00:25:43 --> 00:25:45 >> I'm sure she would. Uh and she probably
00:25:45 --> 00:25:47 does the same calculation that I had,
00:25:47 --> 00:25:50 too. It's um it's just that atoms don't
00:25:50 --> 00:25:52 behave like dollars do. They they change
00:25:52 --> 00:25:54 depending on what they're doing.
00:25:54 --> 00:25:58 >> Yeah. Yeah. My um
00:25:58 --> 00:26:02 my money acts like atoms that sort of
00:26:02 --> 00:26:05 implode on each other. They just Yeah.
00:26:05 --> 00:26:08 That's pretty well what happens. Um
00:26:08 --> 00:26:09 >> that's called that's called nuclear
00:26:09 --> 00:26:12 nuclear fishing where it leaks away.
00:26:12 --> 00:26:14 >> Yes, that's what it is. Yep. Yep.
00:26:14 --> 00:26:17 Indeed. Um, so yeah, well done, Fred. I
00:26:17 --> 00:26:19 I
00:26:19 --> 00:26:21 you might have noticed my eyes glazed
00:26:21 --> 00:26:24 over when you tried to explain that, but
00:26:24 --> 00:26:27 um I'm sure Ken understands because the
00:26:27 --> 00:26:28 the homework you put into that question
00:26:28 --> 00:26:31 was uh spectacular. Thanks, Ken. Lovely
00:26:31 --> 00:26:33 to hear from you. Hope all is well in
00:26:33 --> 00:26:35 that um hideous place called Maruchi
00:26:35 --> 00:26:37 Door on one of the most beautiful parts
00:26:37 --> 00:26:39 of the east coast of Australia. It's a
00:26:39 --> 00:26:41 lovely area. Absolutely beautiful. I'm
00:26:41 --> 00:26:43 so jealous. Uh I'm going to we got a bit
00:26:43 --> 00:26:45 of time up our sleeve. Quick one, Fred.
00:26:45 --> 00:26:47 Um, just a question without notice,
00:26:47 --> 00:26:49 actually. This comes from Sandy in
00:26:49 --> 00:26:50 Melbourne.
00:26:50 --> 00:26:51 >> Good day, Fred and Andrew. I was
00:26:51 --> 00:26:53 recently watching the live views of the
00:26:53 --> 00:26:56 Arteimus 2 spacecraft, and there was
00:26:56 --> 00:26:59 what appears to be dust going past the
00:26:59 --> 00:27:03 spacecraft. What on earth is it? Uh, is
00:27:03 --> 00:27:05 it rocks, dust, debris, or exhaust
00:27:05 --> 00:27:07 material from the ship's maneuvering
00:27:07 --> 00:27:10 engines? Uh, and he did send a link to
00:27:10 --> 00:27:12 um a YouTube video of it and and it's
00:27:12 --> 00:27:15 just really bright pieces of material
00:27:15 --> 00:27:19 just zipping past the um spacecraft. Uh,
00:27:19 --> 00:27:22 I would think exhaust maybe. Have you
00:27:22 --> 00:27:23 >> um come across?
00:27:23 --> 00:27:25 >> No, I need to look at that. Uh, which
00:27:25 --> 00:27:27 I'm just going to try and do because um
00:27:27 --> 00:27:29 I I didn't have a chat. I've been flat
00:27:29 --> 00:27:32 out all day talking about alum all over
00:27:32 --> 00:27:34 the place. Wait a minute. Where are we?
00:27:34 --> 00:27:38 Uh, it's an email that I received. Uh,
00:27:38 --> 00:27:40 >> just sent it to you again. This is like
00:27:40 --> 00:27:42 live radio, Fred. We're just like
00:27:42 --> 00:27:45 >> just doing it on the hop.
00:27:45 --> 00:27:46 >> Uh,
00:27:46 --> 00:27:46 yes.
00:27:46 --> 00:27:49 >> But it's it's a fascinating video. I'm
00:27:49 --> 00:27:51 just looking at it now and um it's only
00:27:52 --> 00:27:53 about 15 seconds, but yes, you can see
00:27:53 --> 00:27:56 all these bright flashes just zipping
00:27:56 --> 00:27:59 past the spacecraft.
00:27:59 --> 00:27:59 >> Um
00:27:59 --> 00:28:00 >> um
00:28:00 --> 00:28:03 >> it could be exhaust material.
00:28:03 --> 00:28:06 I'm not able to see your incoming email.
00:28:06 --> 00:28:09 What's Who is the
00:28:09 --> 00:28:12 >> It's from um Sandy. Sandy
00:28:12 --> 00:28:13 >> that um
00:28:13 --> 00:28:15 >> No, it must have come via Hang on. Here
00:28:15 --> 00:28:17 we are. Space Nuts.
00:28:17 --> 00:28:17 >> Yeah.
00:28:17 --> 00:28:19 >> Is this Yeah. Okay. All right. I've got
00:28:19 --> 00:28:19 the link.
00:28:19 --> 00:28:20 >> Okay.
00:28:20 --> 00:28:24 >> Let me open that up and look at it.
00:28:24 --> 00:28:29 >> Okay. Uh it could be could be ice.
00:28:29 --> 00:28:32 >> Oh, I didn't think of that.
00:28:32 --> 00:28:36 A little bit of stuff going past. Um, it
00:28:36 --> 00:28:38 could be ice because they have had
00:28:38 --> 00:28:41 problems with the toilets. Oh.
00:28:41 --> 00:28:44 >> Uh, which, uh, have frozen up. The
00:28:44 --> 00:28:47 toilets frozen up. Uh, the exhaust vent
00:28:47 --> 00:28:51 for the liquid waste has frozen. Uh, and
00:28:51 --> 00:28:53 they've tried to unblock it. That might
00:28:53 --> 00:28:55 be what that is.
00:28:55 --> 00:28:56 >> Okay.
00:28:56 --> 00:28:58 >> Uh, that's the best guess I can give,
00:28:58 --> 00:29:00 but I guess well be it. Yeah,
00:29:00 --> 00:29:03 >> I think it's a good guess and Sandy is
00:29:03 --> 00:29:04 so glad he asked. We only just talked
00:29:04 --> 00:29:06 about the toilets the other day. All
00:29:06 --> 00:29:09 this innovation and and new tech and
00:29:10 --> 00:29:12 >> yes, the hygiene facility or whatever it
00:29:12 --> 00:29:12 was.
00:29:12 --> 00:29:15 >> That's right. It's given all kinds of
00:29:15 --> 00:29:17 problems, but it's because of the the
00:29:17 --> 00:29:19 the venting pipe has been freezing up.
00:29:19 --> 00:29:21 So, they've turned a couple of times
00:29:21 --> 00:29:22 they've turned the spacecraft towards
00:29:22 --> 00:29:24 the sun. It's also got heaters in it,
00:29:24 --> 00:29:26 which might be faulty or something like
00:29:26 --> 00:29:30 that. But um I believe uh Victor Glover
00:29:30 --> 00:29:33 who uh is one of the crew members I
00:29:33 --> 00:29:36 think he's the plumbing expert.
00:29:36 --> 00:29:39 >> What a great job.
00:29:39 --> 00:29:40 >> What's your job? I'm a plumber on
00:29:40 --> 00:29:40 Optimist.
00:29:40 --> 00:29:43 >> He charges 75 bucks an hour too by the
00:29:43 --> 00:29:43 way. So
00:29:44 --> 00:29:46 >> with $150 call out fee as well.
00:29:46 --> 00:29:48 >> That's right.
00:29:48 --> 00:29:50 That that happened to me once. I called
00:29:50 --> 00:29:51 a plumber and he said, "Oh yeah, that's
00:29:51 --> 00:29:53 a council problem." And then build me 40
00:29:53 --> 00:29:55 bucks.
00:29:56 --> 00:29:57 It's true story.
00:29:57 --> 00:29:59 >> Uh there you go, Sandy. It was It was
00:29:59 --> 00:30:02 the toilet. It was the toilet. Uh maybe.
00:30:02 --> 00:30:04 Thanks for the question. I love doing
00:30:04 --> 00:30:05 questions without notice. You just never
00:30:06 --> 00:30:07 know what's going to get thrown up.
00:30:07 --> 00:30:10 Boom. Boom. Um thank you, Fred. We're
00:30:10 --> 00:30:11 all done.
00:30:11 --> 00:30:14 >> Um thank goodness for that.
00:30:14 --> 00:30:16 >> Maybe so. Maybe so.
00:30:16 --> 00:30:18 >> Yeah, we'll talk again soon, Andrew.
00:30:18 --> 00:30:19 Thank you.
00:30:19 --> 00:30:21 >> Professor Fred Watson, astronomer at
00:30:21 --> 00:30:23 large. And uh don't forget to visit us
00:30:23 --> 00:30:26 online, especially our website um where
00:30:26 --> 00:30:28 you can send us your questions, text and
00:30:28 --> 00:30:31 audio. Spacenuts.io
00:30:31 --> 00:30:33 is one of the URLs you can use or just
00:30:33 --> 00:30:36 do Spacenuts podcast as a search in your
00:30:36 --> 00:30:38 favorite search engine and click on the
00:30:38 --> 00:30:40 AMA link at the top uh where you can
00:30:40 --> 00:30:42 send us text and audio questions. So
00:30:42 --> 00:30:45 don't forget to tell us who you are and
00:30:45 --> 00:30:47 where you're from. And thanks to Hugh in
00:30:47 --> 00:30:49 the studio who actually was with us
00:30:49 --> 00:30:51 today, but he's had to leave because he
00:30:51 --> 00:30:53 had to go and see his accountant uh
00:30:53 --> 00:30:55 because uh apparently the tax department
00:30:55 --> 00:30:57 says there are confusion reactions that
00:30:57 --> 00:31:00 they want to discuss with him.
00:31:00 --> 00:31:01 And from me, Andrew Dunley, thanks for
00:31:02 --> 00:31:03 your company. We'll see you on the next
00:31:03 --> 00:31:05 episode of Space Nuts. Bye-bye.
00:31:05 --> 00:31:08 >> Space Nuts. You've been listening to the
00:31:08 --> 00:31:11 Space Nuts podcast
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