- The Big Rip vs. the Big Crunch: Is the Big Crunch making a comeback in cosmological discussions? [00:00–15:00]
- Exploring the concept of 'nothing' before the Big Bang: What does it mean and why is it so perplexing? [15:01–30:00]
- The collision of neutron stars: What happens and the implications for cosmic safety? [30:01–45:00]
- Lunar sunsets: Could you witness the sun's corona from the moon, and what is the effect of lunar dust? [45:01–60:00]
- Reflections on cosmic mysteries and the future of lunar exploration. [60:01–70:00]
Resources & Links:
- Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation Studies
- Research on Neutron Star Collisions
- Upcoming Lunar Exploration Missions
Connect with Professor Fred Watson:
LinkedIn | Twitter
Join us for another fascinating journey through the universe, and don’t forget to send in your questions for future episodes! Stay curious, and keep looking up!
Become a supporter of this podcast: https://www.spreaker.com/podcast/space-nuts-astronomy-insights-cosmic-discoveries--2631155/support.
00:00 –This is a Q and A edition of Space Nuts. We answer audience questions
01:56 –Fred: Question comes from Martin Berman Govine about the Big Crunch
09:54 –The RIP concept is probably more favourable than the crunch concept
10:30 –Mike asks question about whether there was anything before the Big Bang
16:51 –The cosmic microwave background radiation dates 380,000 years after the Big Bang
18:23 –When two neutron stars collide, do any fragments break off into the universe
20:14 –Colin says neutron stars are formed by gravitational collapse at end of star's life
23:05 –Our final question today comes from Bill in relation to the solar eclipse
24:40 –Could you see lunar corona from the surface, Professor Fred Watson says
28:50 –Space Nuts podcast available at Apple Podcasts, Spotify and iHeartRadio
00:00:00 --> 00:00:02 Andrew Dunkley: Hello again and thank you for joining us.
00:00:02 --> 00:00:04 This is a Q and A edition of Space
00:00:04 --> 00:00:07 Nuts. My name is Andrew Dunkley. Thanks for
00:00:07 --> 00:00:10 your company. Uh, in this show we answer
00:00:10 --> 00:00:13 audience questions and we've got,
00:00:13 --> 00:00:16 uh, plenty. Today, uh, Martin
00:00:16 --> 00:00:18 is asking us questions about the Big Rip.
00:00:19 --> 00:00:21 Or is it the gnab gib. We don't know which.
00:00:22 --> 00:00:25 Uh, Mike is wanting to know what was
00:00:25 --> 00:00:27 around before the Big Bang. I think we've had
00:00:27 --> 00:00:30 that one before but we will revisit it. Uh,
00:00:30 --> 00:00:32 questions about colliding neutrons on the
00:00:32 --> 00:00:34 stars and sunsets on the moon.
00:00:35 --> 00:00:37 Ah, how, ah, beautiful. Sitting
00:00:37 --> 00:00:39 there looking out over the Sea of Tranquilly
00:00:40 --> 00:00:43 getting covered in dust a
00:00:43 --> 00:00:45 pina colada that you can't drink because you
00:00:45 --> 00:00:48 know. Never mind.
00:00:48 --> 00:00:50 We'll answer all of those questions on this
00:00:50 --> 00:00:53 episode of Space Nuts. 15 seconds.
00:00:53 --> 00:00:55 Professor Fred Watson: Guidance is internal. 10,
00:00:55 --> 00:00:58 9. Ignition sequence start.
00:00:58 --> 00:01:01 Space Nuts. 5, 4, 3, 2.
00:01:01 --> 00:01:04 1. 2, 3, 4, 5.
00:01:04 --> 00:01:04 Speaker C: 4321.
00:01:04 --> 00:01:07 Professor Fred Watson: Space nuts astronauts report it feels
00:01:07 --> 00:01:07 good.
00:01:08 --> 00:01:10 Andrew Dunkley: Joining us again to solve all of those
00:01:10 --> 00:01:12 riddles is Professor Fred Watson Watson,
00:01:12 --> 00:01:14 astronomer at large. Hello Fred Watson.
00:01:14 --> 00:01:16 Professor Fred Watson: Hello Andrew. Good to hear your
00:01:17 --> 00:01:20 uh, conjectured sunset. Uh, drinks on the Sea
00:01:20 --> 00:01:22 of Tranquilly. I hope I can join you for it.
00:01:23 --> 00:01:26 Andrew Dunkley: Even if you could suck on that straw. Uh,
00:01:26 --> 00:01:28 lunar regolith probably doesn't taste very
00:01:28 --> 00:01:29 nice.
00:01:30 --> 00:01:32 Professor Fred Watson: That's right, yep.
00:01:32 --> 00:01:35 Andrew Dunkley: But um, yes, one day someone will be sitting
00:01:35 --> 00:01:38 in a, um, in a building looking out over
00:01:38 --> 00:01:41 the lunar surface, probably, you know,
00:01:41 --> 00:01:43 downing a beer or who knows what,
00:01:44 --> 00:01:46 uh, or maybe they'll just have to suck it out
00:01:46 --> 00:01:48 of the, the air in front of them because of
00:01:48 --> 00:01:51 the gravity. Who knows? Um, shall
00:01:51 --> 00:01:53 we get down to business and see if we can
00:01:53 --> 00:01:54 solve some of this stuff?
00:01:54 --> 00:01:55 Professor Fred Watson: Why not?
00:01:56 --> 00:01:58 Andrew Dunkley: All right, our first question comes from
00:01:58 --> 00:02:01 Martin. Now this was a really long involved
00:02:01 --> 00:02:04 question and I' um, I
00:02:04 --> 00:02:07 hope Martin will forgive me but uh, I sent
00:02:07 --> 00:02:09 you the whole question but I'm just going to
00:02:09 --> 00:02:12 do the precede version so that we're not here
00:02:12 --> 00:02:14 for the next 25 minutes reading out. It's not
00:02:14 --> 00:02:16 that long but anyway, uh, gents, thanks so
00:02:16 --> 00:02:18 much for the podcast. That was the question.
00:02:18 --> 00:02:21 No, I have uh, some questions about the Big
00:02:21 --> 00:02:24 Crunch now it seems to be back in vogue.
00:02:24 --> 00:02:27 One, is it in fact now the favoured
00:02:27 --> 00:02:30 theory? And two, also if we
00:02:30 --> 00:02:33 do get a Gnab Gibson in a
00:02:33 --> 00:02:36 lot of ways it sounds like a super ultra
00:02:36 --> 00:02:39 hyper massive black hole with all the matter
00:02:39 --> 00:02:41 and energy of the universe gathering to a
00:02:41 --> 00:02:44 singularity. Which one is it? And
00:02:44 --> 00:02:47 uh, why? Uh, that's Martin from
00:02:47 --> 00:02:49 Melbourne of course, he goes into a lot of
00:02:49 --> 00:02:51 detail within his question, with
00:02:51 --> 00:02:54 possibilities and ideas and concepts and
00:02:54 --> 00:02:57 lefts and rights. But yeah, um, we have
00:02:57 --> 00:02:58 talked about the, um,
00:03:00 --> 00:03:03 the Big Crunch making a comeback. They're
00:03:03 --> 00:03:05 starting to. Although we are still seeing an
00:03:05 --> 00:03:07 expanding universe, it's just not
00:03:07 --> 00:03:10 accelerating like it was, I think.
00:03:10 --> 00:03:12 Um, so that's what's brought the Big Crunch
00:03:12 --> 00:03:14 concept back into vogue. But, um,
00:03:15 --> 00:03:18 at the moment, the Big Rip seems more logical
00:03:18 --> 00:03:19 given what's happening.
00:03:20 --> 00:03:22 Professor Fred Watson: Yes. So
00:03:23 --> 00:03:26 it could be neither. That's
00:03:26 --> 00:03:28 true. You're right.
00:03:29 --> 00:03:31 Um, and Martin's right that we've seen a lot
00:03:31 --> 00:03:34 of discussion about the
00:03:34 --> 00:03:37 possible reduction
00:03:37 --> 00:03:40 of, um, the acceleration.
00:03:40 --> 00:03:42 So the
00:03:43 --> 00:03:45 universe is expanding. We've known since
00:03:45 --> 00:03:48 1998 that that expansion is
00:03:48 --> 00:03:51 accelerating. Uh, that is the work
00:03:51 --> 00:03:53 that got, uh, Adam
00:03:53 --> 00:03:56 Reese, um, saw Perl
00:03:56 --> 00:03:59 Mutter and uh, Brian Schmidt, their
00:03:59 --> 00:04:02 Nobel Prize in 2011.
00:04:03 --> 00:04:06 Now, um, the recent
00:04:06 --> 00:04:08 evidence from the Dark Energy survey, because
00:04:08 --> 00:04:10 we think that's caused by dark energy. We
00:04:10 --> 00:04:12 think it's caused by an energy of space
00:04:13 --> 00:04:16 itself. That, uh, means
00:04:16 --> 00:04:18 that as space gets bigger, it has more
00:04:18 --> 00:04:21 energy. And so it gets bigger, faster.
00:04:21 --> 00:04:24 That's the bottom line. Now, dark energy is
00:04:24 --> 00:04:27 the big puzzle. Um, what is it? Uh, how does
00:04:27 --> 00:04:29 it behave? So the Dark Energy
00:04:29 --> 00:04:32 Survey, which we've talked about recently,
00:04:32 --> 00:04:35 it's presented some results, has
00:04:36 --> 00:04:38 suggested that, uh,
00:04:40 --> 00:04:40 um,
00:04:43 --> 00:04:45 the acceleration may be decreasing,
00:04:46 --> 00:04:49 um, but it's not by any means
00:04:49 --> 00:04:51 confirmed. That still,
00:04:53 --> 00:04:55 uh, sort of new research,
00:04:56 --> 00:04:58 it needs a lot of verification.
00:04:59 --> 00:05:01 Um, and even if that was
00:05:01 --> 00:05:04 verified, we'd need to know just
00:05:04 --> 00:05:07 by how much it is decreasing,
00:05:08 --> 00:05:11 uh, and what phenomena might
00:05:11 --> 00:05:13 lie ahead in order to predict
00:05:13 --> 00:05:16 a Big Crunch or a gnab gib, as
00:05:16 --> 00:05:19 Brian Schmidt always put it. Not a missing
00:05:19 --> 00:05:22 BG brother. Was that Martin? Yes, that
00:05:22 --> 00:05:24 was another Martin. If you said that.
00:05:24 --> 00:05:26 Andrew Dunkley: Yeah, Martin Berman Govine.
00:05:26 --> 00:05:29 Professor Fred Watson: That's the man. Yes. Um, so it's still.
00:05:30 --> 00:05:33 I, um, think it's still a, uh, fairly
00:05:33 --> 00:05:35 speculative idea. Uh,
00:05:36 --> 00:05:38 I think it's very speculative that we might
00:05:38 --> 00:05:41 end up with a Big Crunch. Uh, it's still
00:05:41 --> 00:05:43 speculative that the acceleration is
00:05:43 --> 00:05:46 decreasing. And I was looking, uh, a couple
00:05:46 --> 00:05:48 of days ago at another paper,
00:05:48 --> 00:05:51 um, actually written by, um, a
00:05:52 --> 00:05:54 big group of authors, including some
00:05:54 --> 00:05:57 luminaries from Australia. Ah, also
00:05:57 --> 00:05:59 Brian Schmidt and Adam Reese, who I was just
00:05:59 --> 00:06:01 talking about. Now, uh, they are also on this
00:06:01 --> 00:06:04 paper, they've done a very, very careful
00:06:04 --> 00:06:07 reanalysis of the data. Ah,
00:06:08 --> 00:06:11 that basically was, um,
00:06:11 --> 00:06:14 what we based the initial idea of dark
00:06:14 --> 00:06:16 energy on. The accelerating universe. It's
00:06:16 --> 00:06:19 all about supernova explosions. Um,
00:06:19 --> 00:06:22 because there a recent paper that
00:06:22 --> 00:06:25 suggested that the acceleration wasn't real,
00:06:26 --> 00:06:29 uh, because of phenomena to do with
00:06:29 --> 00:06:31 galaxies. But, um, it turns out that,
00:06:32 --> 00:06:35 yes, it is definitely real.
00:06:35 --> 00:06:37 The acceleration has been firmly confirmed.
00:06:38 --> 00:06:41 But what hasn't been confirmed is that
00:06:41 --> 00:06:43 it's decreasing. So at the moment, I think
00:06:43 --> 00:06:46 the Big Rip is still the likely, you know,
00:06:46 --> 00:06:49 the likely outcome that the universe gets so
00:06:49 --> 00:06:51 big that space starts tearing itself to
00:06:51 --> 00:06:54 pieces. I find that very hard to imagine.
00:06:54 --> 00:06:55 Andrew Dunkley: I do too.
00:06:55 --> 00:06:58 Professor Fred Watson: Um, but that seems to be the more likely
00:06:58 --> 00:07:01 outcome than a big crunch. Or it might just
00:07:01 --> 00:07:04 keep going forever. Look, we're talking
00:07:04 --> 00:07:06 so far into the future now. With the
00:07:06 --> 00:07:08 observations that we can make at the moment,
00:07:08 --> 00:07:10 it's very hard to make any firm predictions.
00:07:10 --> 00:07:12 Andrew Dunkley: You know what I can't get my head around,
00:07:12 --> 00:07:14 Fred Watson, is that, uh, we've got an
00:07:14 --> 00:07:17 expanding universe. It's expanding
00:07:17 --> 00:07:20 at an accelerating rate. Makes me wonder
00:07:20 --> 00:07:23 how much bigger it's getting every second
00:07:24 --> 00:07:26 because it's expanding out in all directions.
00:07:26 --> 00:07:29 Professor Fred Watson: It is. And actually that's a parameter that
00:07:29 --> 00:07:32 we don't know. Uh, um,
00:07:34 --> 00:07:37 well, no, that's not quite true. Um, there
00:07:37 --> 00:07:39 is something that we call the scale factor.
00:07:40 --> 00:07:42 It's just a measure of the scale of the
00:07:42 --> 00:07:44 universe and that's getting bigger.
00:07:45 --> 00:07:45 Uh, so
00:07:49 --> 00:07:51 you can talk about the scale factor. You can
00:07:51 --> 00:07:54 say that now it's, uh,
00:07:54 --> 00:07:57 X amount bigger than it was the day before
00:07:57 --> 00:08:00 yesterday. Um, but in terms
00:08:00 --> 00:08:03 of the physical size of the universe, we
00:08:03 --> 00:08:05 don't know, we don't know how big it is. Um,
00:08:07 --> 00:08:10 uh, we know that
00:08:10 --> 00:08:12 the expansion extends out to the horizon
00:08:12 --> 00:08:15 beyond which we can't see any further. Uh,
00:08:15 --> 00:08:17 but there's more universe beyond that and
00:08:17 --> 00:08:20 it's still expanding. So we don't know how
00:08:20 --> 00:08:22 far it goes on beyond that. And that means we
00:08:22 --> 00:08:24 don't know how big it's getting. The scale
00:08:24 --> 00:08:27 factor is an interesting one though. Um, and
00:08:27 --> 00:08:29 it's what you get from redshift. If you
00:08:29 --> 00:08:32 measure the redshift, ah, of a, uh,
00:08:32 --> 00:08:33 distant galaxy,
00:08:34 --> 00:08:37 um, that immediately gives
00:08:37 --> 00:08:39 you the geometry, gives you the scale factor
00:08:39 --> 00:08:42 from that redshift, uh, we call the redshift
00:08:42 --> 00:08:45 Z. It's a, a M measure
00:08:45 --> 00:08:48 of how far to the red the spectrum of a
00:08:48 --> 00:08:51 galaxy shifted. And the increase in scale
00:08:51 --> 00:08:53 factor, uh, as you look back,
00:08:54 --> 00:08:55 I should say the decrease as you look
00:08:55 --> 00:08:58 backwards, if you look out to a redshift of
00:08:58 --> 00:09:01 Z, the difference in scale factor
00:09:01 --> 00:09:03 between the universe now and the universe as
00:09:03 --> 00:09:06 it was then is one over one plus Z.
00:09:06 --> 00:09:09 It's such a simple equation. Scale factor is
00:09:09 --> 00:09:12 one over one plus z. Uh, that's the
00:09:12 --> 00:09:14 change in uh, scale factor and that's an
00:09:14 --> 00:09:17 absolutely rigorous geometrical equation. So
00:09:17 --> 00:09:19 we do know the scale factor changes but we
00:09:19 --> 00:09:21 don't know what it means in terms of physical
00:09:21 --> 00:09:23 size because we don't know how big the
00:09:23 --> 00:09:24 universe is.
00:09:24 --> 00:09:27 Andrew Dunkley: No, can't see it. Um, but uh,
00:09:27 --> 00:09:29 it must be a massive amount of
00:09:30 --> 00:09:31 inflation uh
00:09:32 --> 00:09:35 every second if it's accelerating outwards
00:09:35 --> 00:09:37 and it's already as big as it is. I mean.
00:09:37 --> 00:09:37 Professor Fred Watson: Yes, that's right.
00:09:38 --> 00:09:40 Andrew Dunkley: What's driving all this dark energy? Um,
00:09:41 --> 00:09:43 probably. But uh. Oh gosh,
00:09:44 --> 00:09:46 um, it's unthinkably huge.
00:09:47 --> 00:09:49 But uh. M. Martin, in answer to your
00:09:49 --> 00:09:51 question, uh, there isn't really a favoured
00:09:51 --> 00:09:53 theory, they're just theories.
00:09:54 --> 00:09:57 So it's um, at the moment still
00:09:57 --> 00:09:59 expanding. Therefore the RIP concept's
00:09:59 --> 00:10:01 probably more favourable than the crunch
00:10:01 --> 00:10:04 concept. But maybe it won't be either. It
00:10:04 --> 00:10:06 might just keep going forever and ever until
00:10:06 --> 00:10:09 we bump into something else. I don't know. I
00:10:09 --> 00:10:12 don't know. Maybe it'll be the Big Dint. I
00:10:12 --> 00:10:12 don't know.
00:10:14 --> 00:10:16 Professor Fred Watson: I've got one of those in my car actually.
00:10:16 --> 00:10:19 Andrew Dunkley: Oh, haven't we all? Um, yes,
00:10:19 --> 00:10:20 thanks for the question Martin. It's a, ah,
00:10:21 --> 00:10:22 really interesting one to speculate about.
00:10:23 --> 00:10:25 This is Space Nuts Andrew Dunkley with
00:10:25 --> 00:10:26 Professor Fred Watson Watson.
00:10:29 --> 00:10:30 Space Nuts.
00:10:30 --> 00:10:33 Our next question is an audio question from
00:10:33 --> 00:10:33 Mike.
00:10:35 --> 00:10:38 Speaker C: This is Mike, uh, from Chroma in the uk.
00:10:39 --> 00:10:41 Um, you had a question.
00:10:42 --> 00:10:44 Uh, well on the podcast I'm listening to
00:10:45 --> 00:10:47 the beginning of the universe as in the Big
00:10:47 --> 00:10:50 Bang. Um, you referred to it as
00:10:50 --> 00:10:52 being nothing before it.
00:10:53 --> 00:10:56 Um, surely from uh,
00:10:56 --> 00:10:58 a non science point of view it would be
00:10:58 --> 00:11:01 better to say there was something before
00:11:01 --> 00:11:04 the Big Bang but you don't know what it was.
00:11:05 --> 00:11:07 Um, why do you
00:11:08 --> 00:11:10 refer to it as nothing
00:11:11 --> 00:11:14 before the Big Bang? Bit of a strange
00:11:14 --> 00:11:15 question but I thought I'd ask.
00:11:16 --> 00:11:19 Andrew Dunkley: Cheers, thank you Mike. And I'm
00:11:19 --> 00:11:21 going to make a little correction Mike,
00:11:21 --> 00:11:24 because I think it's me who suggested
00:11:24 --> 00:11:26 that um, there was nothing and I think
00:11:26 --> 00:11:28 Fred Watson corrected me and said well no, we
00:11:28 --> 00:11:29 don't know what there was.
00:11:30 --> 00:11:32 Professor Fred Watson: Is that the one like that? Yeah,
00:11:33 --> 00:11:35 something along those lines. It's nice to
00:11:35 --> 00:11:38 hear from you Mike. Um, we have uh,
00:11:38 --> 00:11:40 Chroma here in Sydney which is just down the
00:11:40 --> 00:11:42 road from where I live. So
00:11:43 --> 00:11:46 you were right to put the words UK after or
00:11:46 --> 00:11:49 the letters UK after Chroma, the
00:11:49 --> 00:11:50 original Chroma.
00:11:50 --> 00:11:53 Andrew Dunkley: We've had a few of these recently with people
00:11:53 --> 00:11:56 from Vancouver in the United States. Where
00:11:56 --> 00:11:58 was the other one? Um, which
00:11:58 --> 00:12:01 wasn't where we'd normally think. Yeah,
00:12:01 --> 00:12:01 anyway.
00:12:01 --> 00:12:03 Professor Fred Watson: Well, yeah, it depends on your perspective,
00:12:03 --> 00:12:04 doesn't it? Yes, it does. If you're in
00:12:04 --> 00:12:06 Britain, Chrome is in the uk.
00:12:06 --> 00:12:07 Andrew Dunkley: Yeah.
00:12:07 --> 00:12:10 Professor Fred Watson: Um, so, so the, yes,
00:12:10 --> 00:12:13 the, I, I mean you can say there was
00:12:13 --> 00:12:15 nothing. Uh, look, the, the glib way of
00:12:15 --> 00:12:17 saying of the origin of the universe is in
00:12:17 --> 00:12:19 the beginning there was nothing and then it
00:12:19 --> 00:12:21 exploded. And that might be what Mike's
00:12:21 --> 00:12:24 thinking of, um, but that
00:12:24 --> 00:12:27 is pointing you in the wrong
00:12:27 --> 00:12:29 direction because
00:12:30 --> 00:12:33 certainly with the best of our knowledge at
00:12:33 --> 00:12:35 the moment, and that excludes things like
00:12:35 --> 00:12:38 ideas of multiverses, because we simply don't
00:12:38 --> 00:12:40 know whether multiverses exist or not.
00:12:41 --> 00:12:43 We have a universe that we know
00:12:44 --> 00:12:46 had a very explosive event
00:12:46 --> 00:12:49 13.8 billion years ago. We believe
00:12:49 --> 00:12:52 it was the beginning because, uh,
00:12:52 --> 00:12:55 the theory of relativity says that, and
00:12:55 --> 00:12:58 relativity, in all the tests we've thrown at
00:12:58 --> 00:13:01 it over the hundred odd years that
00:13:01 --> 00:13:04 it's been, you know, accepted,
00:13:05 --> 00:13:08 um, it survived all the tests with incredible
00:13:08 --> 00:13:10 robustness. So it's worthwhile
00:13:10 --> 00:13:13 believing what it tells you. And
00:13:13 --> 00:13:16 what it tells you is that time started
00:13:16 --> 00:13:19 with the Big Bang. And so,
00:13:19 --> 00:13:21 um, it means that
00:13:22 --> 00:13:24 the word before doesn't mean anything
00:13:25 --> 00:13:28 because there was no time.
00:13:28 --> 00:13:31 Um, it was Stephen Hawking who always
00:13:32 --> 00:13:34 drew the analogy that um, you
00:13:34 --> 00:13:37 know, he said when you look back in
00:13:37 --> 00:13:40 time it's like
00:13:41 --> 00:13:44 um, going along a line of longitude on
00:13:44 --> 00:13:47 the, ah, Earth heading, say northwards. You
00:13:47 --> 00:13:49 keep on going northwards. What are you doing?
00:13:49 --> 00:13:50 You're going northwards. You know where
00:13:50 --> 00:13:52 you're going, you know what direction you're
00:13:52 --> 00:13:55 going in. When you get to the North Pole, it
00:13:55 --> 00:13:57 has no more meaning because you're at the
00:13:57 --> 00:13:59 beginning, you're kind of at the origin of
00:13:59 --> 00:14:02 it. And that's the
00:14:03 --> 00:14:05 analogy he draws, that the Big
00:14:05 --> 00:14:08 Bang, um, time stops
00:14:08 --> 00:14:11 having any meaning. So you can't
00:14:11 --> 00:14:13 describe what came before because before
00:14:13 --> 00:14:14 doesn't exist.
00:14:16 --> 00:14:17 Andrew Dunkley: Okay,
00:14:19 --> 00:14:21 I see where he's getting frustrated though,
00:14:21 --> 00:14:21 because.
00:14:21 --> 00:14:24 Professor Fred Watson: Yeah, well, we all are. Ah, yeah. And that's
00:14:24 --> 00:14:27 because we think in a normal four
00:14:27 --> 00:14:30 dimensional world, three dimensions of space
00:14:30 --> 00:14:33 and one of time. And time is such a
00:14:33 --> 00:14:36 fundamental part of our existence, uh,
00:14:36 --> 00:14:38 that um, it's hard to
00:14:38 --> 00:14:41 imagine something without
00:14:41 --> 00:14:44 time. Um, the
00:14:44 --> 00:14:46 most recent work on this, uh,
00:14:47 --> 00:14:49 looks as though time is actually, ah,
00:14:49 --> 00:14:52 something that emerges from a much deeper
00:14:52 --> 00:14:55 reality. Uh, this is what the people who are
00:14:55 --> 00:14:57 trying to unite relativity and quantum
00:14:57 --> 00:15:00 mechanics say that there's a
00:15:00 --> 00:15:03 deeper reality and maybe time is just an
00:15:03 --> 00:15:05 artefact that in fact some people say
00:15:05 --> 00:15:07 emerges from entanglement. Quantum
00:15:07 --> 00:15:10 entanglement. That works. I have no idea.
00:15:10 --> 00:15:13 But, um, it's a possibility
00:15:13 --> 00:15:16 that we might understand time a bit better,
00:15:16 --> 00:15:19 uh, with some of the outcomes of
00:15:19 --> 00:15:22 some of these theories, and then you might
00:15:22 --> 00:15:25 be able to see. Well, yes, you're right.
00:15:25 --> 00:15:26 Before the Big Bang, there was no time. So
00:15:26 --> 00:15:28 there's no before. It doesn't exist.
00:15:28 --> 00:15:31 Andrew Dunkley: Yeah. And I just did a
00:15:32 --> 00:15:35 speculative question to Chatgpt what was
00:15:35 --> 00:15:37 around before the Big Bang, and it basically
00:15:37 --> 00:15:39 said exactly what you've just said.
00:15:40 --> 00:15:40 Professor Fred Watson: Glad to hear that.
00:15:41 --> 00:15:42 Andrew Dunkley: One of the answers is nothing. Uh, another
00:15:42 --> 00:15:45 one is that, um, um, something
00:15:45 --> 00:15:48 from nothing. A quantum origin, a, uh,
00:15:48 --> 00:15:51 previous universe, which is the bounce model.
00:15:52 --> 00:15:52 Professor Fred Watson: Ah.
00:15:53 --> 00:15:55 Andrew Dunkley: Eternal inflation, multiverse
00:15:55 --> 00:15:58 possibilities, uh, or cyclic universes. I
00:15:58 --> 00:16:00 don't think we've talked about that before.
00:16:00 --> 00:16:03 Um, and look, the
00:16:03 --> 00:16:06 real answer is we just don't know.
00:16:06 --> 00:16:09 Professor Fred Watson: No, but imagine if we could really iron out
00:16:09 --> 00:16:12 what time is all about, then we might have
00:16:12 --> 00:16:14 a bit better idea. We might have some sort of
00:16:15 --> 00:16:17 lever on the Big Bang. The
00:16:17 --> 00:16:19 only physical, um,
00:16:21 --> 00:16:24 we understand the Big Bang quite well in
00:16:24 --> 00:16:26 terms of the chemistry that it generated,
00:16:26 --> 00:16:29 what happened in terms of the energy creating
00:16:29 --> 00:16:32 atoms. That's all pretty well,
00:16:32 --> 00:16:35 um, understood from the particle physics
00:16:35 --> 00:16:37 theory. Uh, but
00:16:39 --> 00:16:42 when you go to the first few gazillionths of
00:16:42 --> 00:16:45 a second, then all these theories just break
00:16:45 --> 00:16:47 down and we've no idea what was going on. But
00:16:47 --> 00:16:49 if we could understand time a bit better,
00:16:49 --> 00:16:51 then that might lead us some insights.
00:16:51 --> 00:16:53 What I was going to say was the only real
00:16:53 --> 00:16:55 measurements that we can make, uh, of the
00:16:55 --> 00:16:57 cosmic microwave background radiation, and
00:16:57 --> 00:16:59 that's been very well measured to try and
00:16:59 --> 00:17:02 understand what the conditions were like
00:17:02 --> 00:17:05 in the Big Bang. Um, um, what you're seeing
00:17:05 --> 00:17:08 then is something that happened 380 years
00:17:08 --> 00:17:10 after the Big Bang. So you're not talking
00:17:10 --> 00:17:11 about the first gazillionth of a second.
00:17:12 --> 00:17:14 You're looking at a bright surface which
00:17:14 --> 00:17:17 corresponds with, uh, the time when the
00:17:17 --> 00:17:18 universe was glowing brightly.
00:17:20 --> 00:17:22 Andrew Dunkley: Yeah. My theory is that God was making
00:17:22 --> 00:17:24 breakfast, cracked an egg, and that some of
00:17:24 --> 00:17:27 the whites slid out of the side of the fry
00:17:27 --> 00:17:30 pan and hit the hot plate and there was a
00:17:30 --> 00:17:32 big bang. That's what I reckon happened.
00:17:33 --> 00:17:34 Professor Fred Watson: Yeah.
00:17:35 --> 00:17:37 Andrew Dunkley: Which also proves the theory that the egg
00:17:37 --> 00:17:37 came first.
00:17:41 --> 00:17:43 So, yeah, I solved two problems.
00:17:43 --> 00:17:46 Professor Fred Watson: It's two problems at once. Nobody
00:17:46 --> 00:17:48 can say you don't get good value for money
00:17:48 --> 00:17:50 from space nuts. Very true.
00:17:51 --> 00:17:53 Especially considering it's free. Yeah.
00:17:53 --> 00:17:54 Yeah.
00:17:55 --> 00:17:56 Andrew Dunkley: Unless you want to. But that's optional.
00:17:56 --> 00:17:57 Professor Fred Watson: Unless you want to. That's right.
00:17:57 --> 00:17:59 Andrew Dunkley: Um, but all voluntary. Mike.
00:18:00 --> 00:18:02 Can't answer the question, really. We, we
00:18:02 --> 00:18:05 don't really know what was around before the
00:18:05 --> 00:18:07 Big Bang. If there was anything, I think
00:18:07 --> 00:18:09 would be the bottom line. Thanks for the
00:18:09 --> 00:18:10 question. Thanks for sending it in. This is
00:18:10 --> 00:18:13 Space Nuts, a Q and A edition with Andrew
00:18:13 --> 00:18:15 Dunkley and Professor Fred Watson Watson.
00:18:18 --> 00:18:20 Speaker C: Three, two, one.
00:18:20 --> 00:18:23 Andrew Dunkley: Space Nuts Radio.
00:18:23 --> 00:18:26 Our next question, uh, is from Colin. When
00:18:26 --> 00:18:28 two neutron stars collide, do
00:18:28 --> 00:18:31 any FR Break off? If so,
00:18:31 --> 00:18:33 uh, there could be billions of such high,
00:18:34 --> 00:18:36 ultra high density fragments loose in the
00:18:36 --> 00:18:39 universe. Uh, what would an impact mean
00:18:39 --> 00:18:42 for a planet like Earth? Thank you, Colin.
00:18:42 --> 00:18:45 You make us feel very cosy and safe now,
00:18:46 --> 00:18:48 uh, after that one, um, I would
00:18:48 --> 00:18:50 imagine because neutron stars, uh,
00:18:51 --> 00:18:53 renowned for their intense gravity, are they
00:18:53 --> 00:18:56 not? Would it be more or less
00:18:56 --> 00:18:58 impossible for a bit to break off and fly off
00:18:58 --> 00:19:00 into the universe or could that happen?
00:19:01 --> 00:19:03 Professor Fred Watson: Yeah, um, you're right, Andrew. Um,
00:19:04 --> 00:19:06 they coalesce, they become
00:19:07 --> 00:19:10 one object, um, because of the
00:19:10 --> 00:19:12 extreme gravity. Uh,
00:19:13 --> 00:19:14 uh. And um,
00:19:17 --> 00:19:19 there might be fragments caused, but they'd
00:19:19 --> 00:19:22 instantly be sucked back into the
00:19:22 --> 00:19:24 neutron star. Um, I think it's probably
00:19:24 --> 00:19:26 better to imagine them as two blobs
00:19:26 --> 00:19:29 that uh, that coalesce together once they
00:19:29 --> 00:19:32 collide with a very considerable release of
00:19:32 --> 00:19:34 energy, which we see mostly as gravitational
00:19:34 --> 00:19:35 waves, actually.
00:19:36 --> 00:19:38 Andrew Dunkley: Yeah, well, we're talking ultra high
00:19:38 --> 00:19:41 density in a very small package, aren't we?
00:19:41 --> 00:19:44 Professor Fred Watson: Yes, exactly. Something the size of a city,
00:19:44 --> 00:19:46 uh, with a mass of a star.
00:19:46 --> 00:19:49 Andrew Dunkley: Yeah, um, I think Los Angeles
00:19:49 --> 00:19:52 is probably denser. No, I'm sorry, I couldn't
00:19:52 --> 00:19:54 help that. That was, you know, I'm not
00:19:54 --> 00:19:57 picking on Los Angeles. In fact, I probably
00:19:57 --> 00:19:59 picked a bad target because that's a lot of
00:19:59 --> 00:20:00 people that would be very angry with me right
00:20:00 --> 00:20:01 now.
00:20:01 --> 00:20:03 Professor Fred Watson: But anyway, we just lost half our audience.
00:20:03 --> 00:20:06 Andrew Dunkley: Yes, I think we did. Um, but
00:20:06 --> 00:20:09 no, um, they've got to understand my sense of
00:20:09 --> 00:20:10 humour. But nobody does understand it.
00:20:12 --> 00:20:13 Professor Fred Watson: Not even you.
00:20:13 --> 00:20:14 Andrew Dunkley: Not even me.
00:20:14 --> 00:20:17 But we're talking a
00:20:18 --> 00:20:21 really interesting object in space too. Um,
00:20:21 --> 00:20:23 neutron stars are, ah. Um.
00:20:24 --> 00:20:26 One of the storeys we did not was a while ago
00:20:26 --> 00:20:29 now was about the mountain ranges on neutron
00:20:29 --> 00:20:32 stars. You know, the highest peaks are like a
00:20:32 --> 00:20:33 few millimetres high or something.
00:20:33 --> 00:20:34 Professor Fred Watson: Yes, they were.
00:20:35 --> 00:20:36 Andrew Dunkley: It's very, very weird place.
00:20:37 --> 00:20:38 Professor Fred Watson: Yeah, yeah.
00:20:38 --> 00:20:41 Andrew Dunkley: Um, do we know how they're formed initially?
00:20:42 --> 00:20:44 Professor Fred Watson: Yeah, yeah. By gravitational collapse at uh,
00:20:44 --> 00:20:46 the end of a star's life when.
00:20:46 --> 00:20:49 Andrew Dunkley: So what class of star would have existed to
00:20:49 --> 00:20:50 create a neutron star?
00:20:50 --> 00:20:51 Professor Fred Watson: Big ones.
00:20:52 --> 00:20:53 Andrew Dunkley: Big sort of super blue giant.
00:20:53 --> 00:20:56 Professor Fred Watson: Um, yeah, that's right. That's exactly
00:20:56 --> 00:20:58 right. So, um, stars with a mass,
00:21:01 --> 00:21:03 I think it's two to
00:21:04 --> 00:21:06 sort of. Two to Five times the mass of the
00:21:06 --> 00:21:09 sun or something like that. It um, might be a
00:21:09 --> 00:21:11 bit bigger. Uh, ten times the mass of the sun
00:21:11 --> 00:21:14 gives you a black hole basically. So
00:21:14 --> 00:21:17 somewhere below that but in the upper reaches
00:21:17 --> 00:21:19 will give you a neutron star collapse.
00:21:20 --> 00:21:22 Andrew Dunkley: Okay, so, okay, so
00:21:23 --> 00:21:25 our star won't do that. It's not big enough
00:21:25 --> 00:21:27 to do anything. It's just going to, you know,
00:21:27 --> 00:21:30 retire and find itself a street corner with
00:21:30 --> 00:21:32 a, with a, you know, a beer and a brown paper
00:21:32 --> 00:21:34 bag and a packet of cigarettes. That'll be
00:21:34 --> 00:21:37 the end of the sun. But the bigger they
00:21:37 --> 00:21:39 get, the more possibilities.
00:21:41 --> 00:21:44 Professor Fred Watson: Yes, exactly. Um, look, um, the
00:21:44 --> 00:21:46 sun, uh, is a non smoker
00:21:46 --> 00:21:49 but it will do
00:21:49 --> 00:21:52 something similar because it
00:21:52 --> 00:21:55 will puff off its outer
00:21:55 --> 00:21:55 layers.
00:21:56 --> 00:21:58 Andrew Dunkley: Well that happens to all of us. We get fat as
00:21:58 --> 00:21:59 we retire. So
00:22:01 --> 00:22:02 that's what I'm saying.
00:22:02 --> 00:22:04 Professor Fred Watson: Yeah, yeah. It puffs off its outer layers,
00:22:04 --> 00:22:07 it'll become a white dwarf, will be the
00:22:07 --> 00:22:09 nucleus which itself is an exotic object.
00:22:10 --> 00:22:11 That's something the size of Earth but with
00:22:11 --> 00:22:14 the mass of the sun. Um, um,
00:22:15 --> 00:22:17 um, but its outer envelope will turn into
00:22:17 --> 00:22:20 something very beautiful. Probably what we
00:22:20 --> 00:22:21 call a planetary nebula.
00:22:22 --> 00:22:23 Andrew Dunkley: Yeah, we won't think so.
00:22:23 --> 00:22:25 Professor Fred Watson: We might not, but this will be a long time
00:22:25 --> 00:22:27 after we're gone because we'll have been
00:22:27 --> 00:22:28 swallowed up.
00:22:28 --> 00:22:31 Andrew Dunkley: Exactly. But um, as far
00:22:31 --> 00:22:34 as a neutron star is concerned, you've got
00:22:34 --> 00:22:37 a lot of density in a very small package
00:22:37 --> 00:22:40 with a hell of a lot of gravity. And um, the
00:22:40 --> 00:22:41 easiest thing to do there would be to climb
00:22:41 --> 00:22:43 the mountains. But I wouldn't recommend it.
00:22:46 --> 00:22:47 Professor Fred Watson: No, quite so.
00:22:47 --> 00:22:50 Andrew Dunkley: But the bottom line for Colin is um, bits
00:22:50 --> 00:22:51 might break off in the collision but the
00:22:51 --> 00:22:54 gravity is so intense they get sucked back
00:22:54 --> 00:22:56 in. So no, we don't have to worry about
00:22:56 --> 00:22:59 flying pieces of neutron star hitting Earth
00:22:59 --> 00:23:01 while you're trying to sleep. I mean that
00:23:01 --> 00:23:04 wouldn't be fun at all. Thanks Colin.
00:23:04 --> 00:23:05 Thank you for your question.
00:23:05 --> 00:23:07 Our final question today comes from Bill
00:23:08 --> 00:23:10 in relation. Now this was an audio question
00:23:10 --> 00:23:13 that Bill sent in, but the audio quality
00:23:14 --> 00:23:17 um, was super muff for some reason.
00:23:17 --> 00:23:20 And um, we couldn't use the
00:23:20 --> 00:23:23 audio Bill. But um, sometimes these
00:23:23 --> 00:23:25 things get messed up in the ether. So um,
00:23:26 --> 00:23:28 I listened to it about four or five times and
00:23:28 --> 00:23:31 I hope your name is actually Bill. Uh,
00:23:32 --> 00:23:34 and I hope I got uh, the words right in the
00:23:34 --> 00:23:36 question. But he's basically saying in
00:23:36 --> 00:23:39 relation to the Artemis astronauts witnessing
00:23:39 --> 00:23:41 the solar eclipse and seeing the sun's
00:23:41 --> 00:23:44 corona, would you see the same effect
00:23:44 --> 00:23:46 standing on the moon during a lunar
00:23:46 --> 00:23:49 sunset? And uh, Bill's in, in Dover And
00:23:49 --> 00:23:51 Judy and I were in Dover last year. It's
00:23:51 --> 00:23:54 absolutely wonderful there. Went to Dover
00:23:54 --> 00:23:56 Castle, went down into the World War II
00:23:56 --> 00:23:57 tunnels. Although they've been around a lot
00:23:57 --> 00:24:00 longer than that. Fascinating um, place
00:24:00 --> 00:24:03 and the white cliffs and looked out over um,
00:24:03 --> 00:24:06 over the English um, Channel and it was a
00:24:06 --> 00:24:08 clear day so I could see France. Uh,
00:24:08 --> 00:24:11 yeah. Um, something I've always wanted to
00:24:11 --> 00:24:14 witness. The locals are probably saying, oh
00:24:14 --> 00:24:16 gosh, he's boring. I can see that every day.
00:24:18 --> 00:24:19 Professor Fred Watson: They might like to see a kangaroo though,
00:24:19 --> 00:24:21 which you could see every day.
00:24:21 --> 00:24:24 Andrew Dunkley: Yeah, you know, um, it's
00:24:24 --> 00:24:25 a pest species.
00:24:25 --> 00:24:25 Professor Fred Watson: Yes.
00:24:25 --> 00:24:28 Andrew Dunkley: Uh, because, um, they've really
00:24:28 --> 00:24:31 adapted to um, uh, life
00:24:31 --> 00:24:34 post, um, modern agriculture and um.
00:24:34 --> 00:24:37 Yeah, they're doing well. M.
00:24:37 --> 00:24:40 So, um, yes. So
00:24:40 --> 00:24:40 yeah.
00:24:40 --> 00:24:42 Now we'll go back to the Artemis astronauts
00:24:42 --> 00:24:44 because they did see, ah, when they went
00:24:44 --> 00:24:47 around the moon, they saw um, um, a lunar
00:24:47 --> 00:24:49 eclipse and witnessed the corona. They saw
00:24:49 --> 00:24:51 a few other interesting things as well, like
00:24:52 --> 00:24:54 impact, um, flashes on the lunar surface from
00:24:54 --> 00:24:57 micrometeorites. Uh, but yeah,
00:24:57 --> 00:24:59 um, could you see the same effect
00:24:59 --> 00:25:01 standing on the moon?
00:25:02 --> 00:25:04 Professor Fred Watson: Um, yes. The answer is yes,
00:25:05 --> 00:25:07 because the moon doesn't have an atmosphere.
00:25:08 --> 00:25:10 Um, what there is on the
00:25:10 --> 00:25:13 moon is something called levitating
00:25:13 --> 00:25:16 regolith, uh, which is
00:25:16 --> 00:25:19 soil being lifted as a lunar soil particle.
00:25:19 --> 00:25:22 Basically the lunar dust, very, very fine
00:25:22 --> 00:25:25 dust. Um, and that gets
00:25:25 --> 00:25:27 electrostatically charged up during the lunar
00:25:27 --> 00:25:30 day and tends to fly off the
00:25:30 --> 00:25:31 surface.
00:25:31 --> 00:25:33 Andrew Dunkley: And that's why it ends up in your pina
00:25:33 --> 00:25:33 colada.
00:25:34 --> 00:25:36 Professor Fred Watson: It could be. Yes, that's right.
00:25:37 --> 00:25:40 Uh, so that's right. Uh, so,
00:25:40 --> 00:25:43 um, there could be a little bit
00:25:43 --> 00:25:46 of a dust haze, uh, on the moon
00:25:47 --> 00:25:49 which might spoil your view of the corona.
00:25:49 --> 00:25:52 That's the only thing that I could think of
00:25:52 --> 00:25:54 that would, um.
00:25:54 --> 00:25:57 Uh, it's certainly true that um, the Apollo
00:25:57 --> 00:26:00 astronauts, several of them, yes, witnessing
00:26:00 --> 00:26:03 the. Looking for exactly what we're talking
00:26:03 --> 00:26:05 about the corona of the sun as it rises
00:26:06 --> 00:26:09 above the limb of the moon. They could see
00:26:09 --> 00:26:12 this lunar dust being illuminated
00:26:12 --> 00:26:14 and that's how we know it happens. Um,
00:26:15 --> 00:26:18 there are some quite well known sketches made
00:26:18 --> 00:26:20 by some of the astronauts because it's very,
00:26:20 --> 00:26:23 very faint and with the cameras they had at
00:26:23 --> 00:26:25 that time, it wasn't possible to
00:26:25 --> 00:26:28 directly uh, record it, but there were
00:26:28 --> 00:26:30 sketches that they made. So it wasn't a
00:26:30 --> 00:26:33 solar phenomenon, it's this levitating dust.
00:26:34 --> 00:26:37 Um, but I think you'd see the
00:26:37 --> 00:26:39 lunar corona as well from the surface.
00:26:39 --> 00:26:40 Andrew Dunkley: Okay.
00:26:40 --> 00:26:42 Professor Fred Watson: Maybe one day somebody will find out because
00:26:42 --> 00:26:44 at the moment we've never had a human
00:26:44 --> 00:26:47 Watching a lunar sunset or moon. Sorry?
00:26:47 --> 00:26:49 A lunar sunset or sunrise.
00:26:50 --> 00:26:53 Andrew Dunkley: Yes, yeah, it'll happen, It'll happen.
00:26:53 --> 00:26:53 Professor Fred Watson: It will.
00:26:53 --> 00:26:55 Andrew Dunkley: Uh, yes, you know the way they're talking,
00:26:55 --> 00:26:58 within a very short period of time, there
00:26:58 --> 00:27:01 will be permanent habitation on the moon
00:27:01 --> 00:27:03 of some kind. Research stations, maybe, um,
00:27:05 --> 00:27:07 power generators, I don't know. They've got.
00:27:07 --> 00:27:10 There's a lot to do and as we mentioned in
00:27:10 --> 00:27:11 the last episode, there's, uh. They're
00:27:11 --> 00:27:13 already looking at ways of building
00:27:13 --> 00:27:16 infrastructure on the. On the moon using.
00:27:16 --> 00:27:19 Using moon dust. So, um. Yeah,
00:27:19 --> 00:27:21 we'll get there. I was going to say
00:27:21 --> 00:27:23 eventually, but I don't think it'll be
00:27:23 --> 00:27:25 eventual. I think it's. We're at the dawn of
00:27:25 --> 00:27:25 it.
00:27:25 --> 00:27:27 Professor Fred Watson: Yep. So exciting.
00:27:27 --> 00:27:30 Andrew Dunkley: M. But yes, a sunset on the moon could be.
00:27:30 --> 00:27:32 Could be quite fascinating. And thank you,
00:27:32 --> 00:27:34 Bill, for your question. Hope all is well in
00:27:35 --> 00:27:37 Dover. And if got questions for us, please
00:27:37 --> 00:27:39 send them in to us via our website,
00:27:39 --> 00:27:42 spacenutspodcast.com or
00:27:42 --> 00:27:44 spacenuts IO. Click on the
00:27:44 --> 00:27:47 AMA button at the top and, uh, that means
00:27:47 --> 00:27:50 ask me anything. And you can send in text
00:27:50 --> 00:27:52 questions or audio questions. If you've got a
00:27:52 --> 00:27:54 device with a microphone, you're all set. And
00:27:54 --> 00:27:57 that's just about everything these days. And,
00:27:57 --> 00:27:59 um, don't forget to tell us who you are and
00:27:59 --> 00:28:00 where you're from and have a look around on
00:28:00 --> 00:28:02 our website while you're there. And, um,
00:28:02 --> 00:28:04 please leave reviews wherever you listen to
00:28:04 --> 00:28:07 us because they help, apparently. I don't
00:28:07 --> 00:28:08 know what they help with. Probably someone
00:28:08 --> 00:28:11 else getting paid, I don't know. But, um,
00:28:11 --> 00:28:14 yes, reviews are always good. They move us up
00:28:14 --> 00:28:16 the pecking order. Number one in Iceland.
00:28:17 --> 00:28:20 Um, but yeah, uh, it's all good stuff.
00:28:20 --> 00:28:22 And Fred Watson, thank you so much. It's been
00:28:22 --> 00:28:23 good to talk.
00:28:24 --> 00:28:26 Professor Fred Watson: It has. It's been a, um, great pleasure as
00:28:26 --> 00:28:26 always.
00:28:27 --> 00:28:29 Andrew Dunkley: We'll catch you soon. Professor Fred Watson
00:28:29 --> 00:28:31 Watson, astronomer at large. And thanks to
00:28:31 --> 00:28:33 Huw in the studio, who couldn't be with us
00:28:33 --> 00:28:35 today because he likes pina coladas and walks
00:28:35 --> 00:28:38 in the rain. Not much into health food, but
00:28:38 --> 00:28:39 he's into champagne. That's why he's under
00:28:39 --> 00:28:42 the table. Couldn't join us today. And from
00:28:42 --> 00:28:43 me, Andrew Dunkley, thanks for your company.
00:28:44 --> 00:28:46 Some people will get that joke. See you on
00:28:46 --> 00:28:48 the next episode of Space Nuts.
00:28:48 --> 00:28:49 Professor Fred Watson: Bye. Bye.
00:28:50 --> 00:28:52 Andrew Dunkley: You've been listening to the Space Nuts
00:28:52 --> 00:28:55 podcast, available at
00:28:55 --> 00:28:57 Apple Podcasts, Spotify,
00:28:57 --> 00:28:59 iHeartRadio or your favourite favourite
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00:29:03 --> 00:29:03 Professor Fred Watson: Com.
00:29:04 --> 00:29:06 Andrew Dunkley: This has been another quality podcast
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00:29:08 --> 00:29:08 Speaker C: Um,