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This is Space Time series 26 episode, 100 and 28 for
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broadcast on the 25th of October 2023. Coming up on Space Time,
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the dramatic history of the Andromeda galaxy quartz crystals
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discovered in the clouds of a gas giant and trying to
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understand the Sun's heating processes. All that and more
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coming up on Space Time.
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Welcome to Space Time with Stuart Gary.
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A new study has unveiled the violent history of our nearest
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neighboring big galaxy M 31 in Andromeda. The study reported in
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the Astrophysical Journal letters and on the pre press
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physics website archive dot org is based on new computer
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modeling.
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Scientists examine the chemical composition, elemental
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abundances found in two sources inside planetary nebulae, the
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gas and dust that's cast off the outer layers of a dying low mass
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star known as a white dwarf and from bloated aging higher mass
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stars known as red giants. The analysis reveals that Andromeda
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formation was far more dramatic and forceful than that of our
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own Milky Way galaxy.
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It seems after an initial intense burst of star formation
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that created the galaxy, a secondary layer of stars was
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produced sometime between two and 4.5 billion years ago. Most
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likely triggered by what scientists call a wet merger.
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That is a merger of two gas rich Galaxies that instigates a large
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amount of star formation. A process called starburst.
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Scientists have long thought that Andromeda experienced a
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major merger of two Galaxies based on the position and motion
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of individual stars within the galaxy.
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The study's lead author Chai Kobayashi from the University Of
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Hertfordshire says the research shines new light on the nature
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and impact of such mergers using the chemical composition of
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stars and it explains how stars and elements were formed
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throughout the history of Andromeda.
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She says it's a fantastic example of how galactic
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archaeology can provide fresh new insights into the history of
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the universe by analyzing the chemical abundances of different
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ages of stars in Andromeda. The authors could bring to life its
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history and better understand its origins.
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Although in many ways Andromeda is really very similar to our
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own Milky Way galaxy. They're similar in size, they're both
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spiral disk Galaxies. The new research confirms that its
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history is far more intense and dramatic with bursts of actively
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forming stars in abundance and two distinct errors of star
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formation.
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Kobayashi's theoretical model predicts two distinct chemical
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compositions of stars in the two disc components of Andromeda.
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One has 10 times more oxygen than iron while the other has
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similar amounts of oxygen and iron. The modeling was confirmed
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through spectroscopic observations of planetary nebula
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and also by studying red giants using the Web Space telescope.
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Kobayashi says oxygen is one of the so called alpha elements
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produced in massive stars. The others are neon magnesium,
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silicon, sulfur argon, and calcium. She says oxygen and
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argon are being measured with planetary nebulae. But Andromeda
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is so far away that the James Webb Space Telescope was
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required to measure other elements including iron.
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Andromeda is the biggest galaxy in the local galactic group,
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which includes the Milky Way. It 's located about 2.5 million
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light years away. The Milky Way and Andromeda Galaxies are
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moving closer together. In fact, they're expected to collide in
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about 3.7 to 4.5 billion years from now. Eventually they'll
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merge forming a giant new elliptical galaxy.
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Andromeda contains over a trillion stars that's twice as
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many as the Milky Way and it's about 220 light years
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across. Now, based on current estimates, Andromeda appears to
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have more older stars in the Milky Way. And it also has far
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less new star production going on than the Milky Way. The rate
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of supernovae that is exploding stars in the Milky Way is also
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about double that of Andromeda.
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Andromeda is surrounded by a large massive halo of hot gas.
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In fact, it's estimated to contain more than half the mass
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of all the stars in the galaxy. This nearly invisible halo
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stretches about a million light years from its host galaxy
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almost half way to the Milky Way. Using a good pair of
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binoculars or backyard telescope.
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You should be able to see the dark dust lanes in Andromeda
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spiral arms and you'll even notice its bright central
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galactic core. This is Space Time still to come. Quartz
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crystals discovered in the clouds of a hot gas giant and a
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new study underway to try and understand the Sun's heating all
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that and more still to come on Space Time.
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Astronomers using NASA's James Webb Space Telescope have
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detected evidence of quartz nanocrystals in high altitude
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clouds on the exoplanet wasp 17 B. The planet is a hot Jupiter
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located some 1300 light years from Earth.
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The detection which was uniquely possible thanks to Webb's mid
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infrared instrument marks the first Time that silica particles
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have been spotted in an exoplanet's atmosphere.
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The study's lead author David Grant from the University Of
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Bristol says he was thrilled with the discovery grant says he
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knew from earlier Hubble observations that there must be
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aerosols, tiny particles making up clouds or haze within wasp 17
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B's atmosphere.
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But he didn't expect them to be made of quartz, silicates,
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minerals rich in silicon and oxygen make up the bulk of
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planet Earth and its moon as well as many other rocky objects
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in our solar system. And they're thought to be extremely common
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right across the galaxy.
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But the silicate grains previously detected in the
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atmospheres of exoplanets and brown dwarves all appear to have
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been made from magnesium rich silicates like olivine and
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pyroxene, not quartz alone, which is pure silicon oxide. The
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results put a new spin on science's understanding of how
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exoplanet clouds form and evolve.
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The authors fully expected to see magnesium silicates.
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But what they're seeing instead are likely to be the building
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blocks of those the tiny seed particles needed to form the
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larger silicate grains that are detected in cooler exoplanets
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and brown dwarves with a volume more than seven times that of
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Jupiter and a mass less than one half that of Jupiter. Wasp 17 B
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is one of the largest yet least dense known exoplanets.
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This along with its short orbital period, just 3.7 Earth
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days makes the planet ideal for transmission spectroscopy. A
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technique that involves measuring the filtering and
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scattering effects of the planet 's atmosphere.
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On Starlight Webb observed the wasp 17 system for nearly 10
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hours, collecting more than 1275 brightness measurements in the 5
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to 12 micro mid infrared range as the planet crossed the star.
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Then by subtracting the brightness of the individual
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wavelengths of light that reached the telescope when the
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planet was in front of the star from those of the star when it
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was on its own.
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The team were able to calculate the amount of each wavelength
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blocked by the planet's atmosphere and what emerged was
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an unexpected bump at 8.6 microns a feature that would not
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be expected if the clouds were made of magnesium silicates or
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other possible high temperature aerosols like aluminum oxide,
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but which makes perfect sense if they're made of quartz.
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While these crystals are probably similar in shape to the
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pointy hexagonal prisms found in geodes. Each one is only about
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10 nanometers across that's one millionth of a centimeter. The
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Hubble data actually played a key role in constraining the
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size of the particles.
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The authors knew there was silica from the web's data, but
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they needed the visible and the infrared observations from
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Hubble for context. In order to figure out how large the
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crystals were unlike mineral particles found in clouds on
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Earth.
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The quartz crystals detected in the clouds of wasp 17 B are not
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swept up from the rocky surface. Instead they originate in the
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atmosphere itself. You see wasp 17 B is extremely hot around
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1500 °C.
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And the pressure where they form up high in the atmosphere is
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only about 1/1000 out of what we experience on Earth's surface.
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In these conditions, solid crystals can form directly from
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gas without needing to go through a liquid phase.
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First, understanding what the clouds are made of is crucial
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for understanding the planet as a whole hot titters like wasp 17
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B are made primarily of hydrogen and helium with small amounts of
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other gasses like water vapor and carbon dioxide.
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If we only consider the oxygen that's in these gasses and
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neglect to include all the oxygen locked up in the minerals
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like quartz. Then we'll significantly underestimate the
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total abundance. The silica crystals are telling scientists
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a lot about the inventory of different minerals.
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And now they all come together to shape the environment of the
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planet. Exactly how much quartz is there and how pervasive it is
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in the clouds is hard to determine the clouds are likely
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present along the day night transition zone.
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The terminator, which was the region where these observations
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probed, given that the planet is tiredly light with one side
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constantly facing its host star and the alva cooler side in
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perpetual darkness, it's likely that the clouds circulate around
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the planet but vaporize when they reach the hotter day side,
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considering the amount of convection going on, the winds
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could be moving these tiny glassy particles at thousands of
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kilometers per hour.
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This is Space Time still to come understanding the Sun's heating
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processes. And later in the science report, discovery of a
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link between women eating ultra processed foods and an increased
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risk of depression. All that and more still to come on Space
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Time.
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One of the greatest and longest running mysteries of our Sun is
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why the outer atmosphere is far hotter than its surface. The Sun
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is a surface temperature of about 6000 °C. But as you move
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further into the atmosphere, it gets hotter, eventually reaching
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millions of degrees Celsius. And that doesn't make sense.
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The further away you get from a heat source, the cooler it's
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supposed to get not hotter. Researchers now believe they may
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have an answer and they hope to prove it with the help of NASA's
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Parker Solar probe. Parker is the first spacecraft to enter
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the zone surrounding the Sun where heating looks
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fundamentally different from what had previously been seen in
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space.
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This allows scientists to test different theories on what's
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causing this heating. And one of these hypotheses is that the
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heating is due to small magnetic waves traveling back and forth
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within the zone. Solving the riddle would help scientists
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better understand and predict solar weather events.
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These geomagnetic storms or space weather can cause serious
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threats to Earth's power grid, to its communications and
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navigation systems and to orbiting spacecraft and their
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crews, Parker, principal investigator, Justin Casper
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says, whatever the physics behind the super heating, it's a
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puzzle that's been staring scientists in the eye for at
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least 500 years.
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The theory and how the team are using Parker to test it has now
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been described in the Astrophysical Journal letters in
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this zone of preferential heating above the Sun's surface
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temperatures rise overall more bizarre. Still individual
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elements are heated to different temperatures preferentially,
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some heavier ions are super heated until they're 10 times
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hotter than the hydrogen that's everywhere in the area.
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And that would make them hotter than the core of the Sun, which
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is around 15 million degrees Celsius. Such high temperatures
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cause the solar atmosphere to swell to many times the diameter
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of the Sun. And they're the reason we see an extended corona
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during solar eclipses.
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Casper says in that sense, the coronal heating mystery has been
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visible to Astronomers for more than half a millennium. Even if
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the high temperatures were only appreciated within the last
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century. The same zone also features hydro magnetic Alphin
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waves which move back and forth between the outermost edge and
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the Sun's surface at the outermost edge called the Alphin
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point.
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The solar wind moves faster than the Alphin speed and the waves
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can no longer travel back to the Sun. Casper says that when
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you're below this Alphin point, you're in the soup of waves
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where charged particles are deflected and accelerated by
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waves coming from all directions in trying to estimate how far
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from the Sun's surface. This preferential heating stops.
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The authors examined decades of observations of the solar wind
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by NASA's wind spacecraft. They looked at how much of the helium
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's increased temperature close to the Sun was washed out by
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collisions between ions and the solar wind as they traveled out
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towards the Earth. Watching the helium temperature decay allowed
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scientists to measure the distance to the outer edge of
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the zone.
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Casper says he takes all this data and treats it like a sort
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of stopwatch to figure out how much Time has elapsed since the
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wind was first super heated since they know how fast the
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wind's moving, they can convert that information to distance.
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And those calculations put the outer edge of the super Heating
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Zone, roughly 10 to 50 solar radii out from the surface.
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It was impossible to be any more precise since some values could
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only be guessed at initially. Casper didn't think to compare
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his estimate of the zone's location with the Alphin point.
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But he wanted to know if there was a physically meaningful
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location in space that produced the outer boundary.
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After reading that the Alphin point and other services had
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been observed to expand and contract with solar activity.
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Casper together with co author Christopher Klein from the
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University Of Arizona reworked their analysis looking at year
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to year changes rather than considering the entire wind
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mission.
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And they were shocked to find that the outer boundary of the
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zone of preferential heating and the Alphin point moved in
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lockstep with each other in a totally predictable fashion
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despite being completely independent calculations. So
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does the Alphin point Mark the outer edge of the Heating Zone?
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And what exactly is changing under the Alphin point that
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super heats heavy ions?
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The authors will know the answer to that as Parker gets ever
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closer to the Sun Parker, solar probe was launched back in
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August 2018 and it made its first rendezvous with the Sun in
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November of that year. Ever since then, it's been doing a
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series of gravity assisted loops around Venus in order to more
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precisely target a closer and closer swoop of the Sun's
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surface.
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As Parker gets ever closer with each pass, the probe will
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eventually fall below the Alphin point. Casper says that thanks
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to the Parker Solar probe, it will ultimately be able to
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definitively determine through local measurements what
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processes lead to the acceleration of the solar wind
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and the preferential heating of certain elements.
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Parker Solar probe launched in 2018 and over the next seven
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years, slowly move closer and closer to the visible surface of
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the Sun is at a temperature of about 6000 degrees, just
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hundreds of miles above that surface.
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Something very mysterious happens by the Time we're in the
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extended solar atmosphere of corona, we see temperatures of
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millions of degrees and you wind up with this swamp of
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electromagnetic fields, ions and electrons whizzing around. We
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think there's a zone around the Sun where this preferential
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heating happens.
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Casper decided to compare the alpha point along with the
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estimated zone of preferential heating. The result with two
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independent calculations moving together as one.
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At some point, the alpha speed drops below the speed of the
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solar wind, the wind is escaping from the Sun. Any waves that
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would be given off by the solar wind would never make it back to
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the solar surface. We call this the alpha point that's.
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Parker principal investigator Justin Caspar and this is Space
00:16:39
Time and Time. Now to take another brief look at some of
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the other stories making news in science. This week with the
00:17:00
science report, researchers believe they've found a link
00:17:04
between women eating ultra processed foods and an increased
00:17:08
risk of depression.
00:17:10
The findings reported in the journal of the American Medical
00:17:12
Association showed that the link was especially strong for foods
00:17:16
containing artificial sweeteners. Scientists looked
00:17:20
into the eating habits and mental health of some 31
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women between the ages of 42 and 62.
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They say although the mechanisms that associates ultra processed
00:17:30
foods to depression are unknown. Their findings suggest that
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artificial sweeteners and artificially sweetened beverages
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could be. As previous researchers suggested eliciting
00:17:39
certain changes in the brain that are associated with the
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development of depression.
00:17:45
Scientists have discovered that the majority of critical
00:17:48
habitats and movement pathways for Southern Greater gliders in
00:17:51
Queensland lie outside the protected areas. Researchers
00:17:55
used innovative technology to map mature forests to identify
00:17:59
potential habitat corridors that were essential for the survival
00:18:03
of the endangered species.
00:18:05
Their findings were reported in the journal Pacific Conservation
00:18:08
Biology show that most of the important remaining glider
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habitat in Queensland occurred within privately owned areas and
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these areas are vulnerable to things like logging, clearing
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and other threats.
00:18:23
A new study has found that chat GP T might be better than
00:18:26
doctors when it comes to following recommended guidelines
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for managing depression. A report of the journal Family
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Medicine And Community Health claims the team offered eight
00:18:35
patient summaries which included gender, social class and
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depression severity to both Chat GP T and 1249 French doctors.
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The authors found that compared to the human doctors, Chat GPT
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was more likely to offer recommendations which were in
00:18:52
line with clinical guidelines. In addition, Chat GPT didn't
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exhibit any gender or social biases in its recommended
00:19:00
treatment.
00:19:01
While the authors acknowledge ethical and security
00:19:03
consideration risks that come with using Chat GPT. They say
00:19:07
the results still showed the artificial intelligence had the
00:19:10
potential to enhance decision making in health care.
00:19:14
But the authors admit the study doesn't take into account
00:19:17
ongoing visits and care and they admit there's often no
00:19:20
substitute for human clinical judgment, turning your old
00:19:25
analog camera, digital you hardware and updates from Apple
00:19:28
and Big Techs. After more of your money with the details on
00:19:32
those and other stories, we're joined by technology editor Alex
00:19:36
Saha of Roy from tech advice. Start life.
00:19:38
New and unverified accounts will need to pay $1 a year. So not a
00:19:42
month but a year to be able to post and interact with other
00:19:44
posts. And this is being rolled out to start with in New Zealand
00:19:47
and the Philippines. And they say that they're doing this to
00:19:50
bolster their efforts to reduce spam to reduce the manipulation
00:19:53
of their platform and also to to clamp down on bot activity while
00:19:57
balancing platform accessibility.
00:19:58
They already are charging us $8 a month to be to have the blue
00:20:03
tick verify your account. And they'd like to have a fee. I've
00:20:06
read that of $3.99. You'll have more ads, but it's a cheaper
00:20:09
fee. And they will also want to have a more expensive fee that
00:20:12
will have no ads at all. They want to get rid of all this, the
00:20:15
bots on the platform.
00:20:16
So this is the beginning of social media networks charging
00:20:19
you. I know that Facebook has always had a tagline that says
00:20:22
Facebook will be free and always will be. But even Facebook wants
00:20:25
to start charging you for verifying your account. And I
00:20:28
think the days of the free ride on the internet are coming to an
00:20:30
end. Is it just a getting greedy?
00:20:32
After all, we already are the commodity being sold?
00:20:35
Sure. Well, look, existing users aren't going to be charged.
00:20:37
You're sort of grandfathered in. I guess this is also a way of
00:20:39
getting people to sign up as quick as they can. I mean, they
00:20:42
could always start charging everybody in the future. Look,
00:20:44
it costs a lot of money to run these services and unless you
00:20:48
have enough ads coming.
00:20:49
In, they're making wells. Come on.
00:20:52
Well, certainly people like Google and Facebook are X has
00:20:55
been under attack by the ADL and by a lot of organizations who
00:20:58
claim that because X has removed its moderation and allowing
00:21:02
people to speak freely. A lot of companies will just have to pull
00:21:04
the advertising back. So Elon has to pay back a $44 billion
00:21:08
loan and that's not cheap. And so he's got to get some money
00:21:12
somehow.
00:21:12
Some new technology and new updates for iphone users. Tell
00:21:16
us about it all.
00:21:16
Well, let's start with the USB C pencil for ipads. So you've got
00:21:19
the original pencil that had the lightning port plugged into the
00:21:22
bottom and then you had the Apple pencil two that connected
00:21:25
to the top of your ipad magnetically and it charged
00:21:28
wirelessly and there was no way of plugging a cable into it.
00:21:31
Apple now has a third pencil that still connects magnetically
00:21:34
to the top of ipads, the ones with the flat edges, but it
00:21:37
charges and pairs using USB C. Now it is cheaper than the
00:21:41
original Apple pencil, the very first one, but it leaves
00:21:44
something out. It leaves out the ability to do pressure
00:21:47
sensitivity. Most of the styles have 4096 points of pressure
00:21:50
sensitivity.
00:21:51
So when you push harder on the screen, you get a thicker,
00:21:53
darker line, which is something important for artists, but it's
00:21:56
not so important if you're just using your pencil to annotate to
00:21:59
handwrite, to draw simple imagery and do the basic things
00:22:02
that people use the stylus for.
00:22:04
If you're a professional artist or you really want to get more
00:22:06
details in your artwork, then you would get the Apple pencil
00:22:09
too, which has the 4096 pressure points. And you can also double
00:22:13
tap on the tip of the pencil to change between brushes. So Apple
00:22:16
has launched a cheaper pencil and coming on October the 24th
00:22:19
will be IOS 17.1.
00:22:22
Now, amongst other advances which include things like being
00:22:25
able to send airdrops over the internet so that you can start
00:22:28
the airdrop between two devices and then walk away plenty of
00:22:31
data. But there's a problem that people have been reporting with
00:22:34
their iphone 15 Pro and Pro Max where they have this burning
00:22:38
problem.
00:22:38
So you have these ghost like images of the keyboard and the
00:22:41
icons on the home screen that even after you go into a
00:22:44
different app, you can still see these ghostly images. And so the
00:22:46
17.1 update is supposed to fix that problem. So the ghostly
00:22:50
images and the burning stops happening. And if you're still
00:22:53
having that problem, then you should go back to Apple and swap
00:22:55
it for a new iphone.
00:22:57
And I hear there's a new digital film that fits in the back of
00:23:00
all those analog cameras. I've got lying around the place.
00:23:03
Yeah, this is a Kickstarter project called I'm Back film and
00:23:06
I've got a link to it on my website and a video. Now this
00:23:09
will bridge the analog nostalgia and digital innovation gap. I
00:23:13
mean, all those cameras that are sitting around the film's
00:23:15
expensive digital processing films, expensive processing
00:23:18
photos is expensive.
00:23:19
I mean you can't go to them to the chemist anymore. Like you
00:23:21
used to be able to and get your film processed inexpensively. So
00:23:24
this looks like a yellow roll of Kodak film and sticking outside
00:23:28
of the film is a digital sensor that can snap the image when you
00:23:32
push the shutter and the image is being captured on the
00:23:34
electronics and it saves it all to an SD card company has
00:23:37
already made several prototypes over the past few years.
00:23:39
This is the most advanced one yet. And they're trying to bring
00:23:42
analog cameras back and be that bridge between the old fashioned
00:23:45
and the new. So it's already been fully funded. The company
00:23:48
now has to mass produce them over the next few months.
00:23:51
But it's always fascinating to see when modern technology
00:23:54
revives retro technologies. We have more vinyl records sold and
00:23:58
cds these days, vinyl has come back. People using old fashioned
00:24:01
turntables has come back and now people using old analog cameras
00:24:05
with a digital interface is going to be the new normal.
00:24:07
And what else is on the website? Ok.
00:24:09
So at tech advice dot life, you can see a new system to easily
00:24:13
organize your Apple watch bands. There's videos from you and
00:24:16
Dreamy, there's a robotic dog there. I took an extended video
00:24:19
of there's launch events that I went to that I filmed videos of
00:24:22
and there's always more content arriving almost every day. So
00:24:25
please come and have a.
00:24:26
Look that's Alex Sar of Reit from Tech Advice, Do Life and
00:24:46
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