The Space News Podcast. SpaceTime Series 26 Episode 127 *Astronomers discover newborn galaxies Astronomers have now been able to look so far back in space-time that they are witnessing the very birth of galaxies. *Psyche blasts off bound for a metal asteroid NASA’s Psyche spacecraft is finally on its way undertaking a six year 3.6 billion kilometre voyage to a mysterious metal-rich asteroid that could hold secrets about the formation of planets like the Earth. *Annular eclipse mesmerizes the Americas On October 14, 2023, the Moon aligned with the Sun and Earth to produce an annular solar eclipse. *The Science Report New Studies show 20 percent of Australian teenagers are now vaping. Ozempic associated with an increased risk of gastrointestinal issues. A new study shows that the likelihood of hail storms has dropped dramatically in most of Australia. Skeptics guide to peer review problems This week’s guests: Claudia Lagos from the University of Western Australia Psyche principal investigator Lindy Elkins-Tanton from Arizona state university Psyche deputy principal investigator and imager instrument lead Jim Bell from Arizona state Psyche Deputy project system engineer Tracy Drain from NASA’s jet propulsion laboratory Psyche project system engineer David Oh from NASA’s jet propulsion laboratory Psyche Project Manager Henry Stone from NASA’s jet propulsion laboratory Space Systems Lorell chassis program managers Steve Scott Parker Solar Probe principal investigator Justin Kasper Daniel Scheeres from the university of Colorado Boulder And our regular guests: Alex Zaharov-Reutt from www.techadvice.life Tim Mendham from Australian Skeptics Listen to SpaceTime on your favorite podcast app with our universal listen link: https://spacetimewithstuartgary.com/listen and access show links via https://linktr.ee/biteszHQ Additionally, listeners can support the podcast and gain access to bonus content by becoming a SpaceTime crew member through www.bitesz.supercast.com or through premium versions on Spotify and Apple Podcasts. Details on our website at https://spacetimewithstuartgary.com For more SpaceTime and show links: https://linktr.ee/biteszHQ
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This is Space Time series 26 episode 127 for broadcast on the
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23rd of October 2023. Coming up on Space Time astronomers
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discover newborn Galaxies, the Psyche mission finally blasts
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off bound for a metal asteroid and the Americas mesmerized by
00:00:20
an annular eclipse. All that and more coming up on Space Time.
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Welcome to Space Time with Stuart Gary, astronomers are now
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able to look so far back in time. They are quite literally
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witnessing the very birth of Galaxies throughout most of the
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history of the Universe. Galaxies seemingly tend to
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follow a tight relationship between how many stars they've
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formed and how many heavy elements they've formed.
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But now for the first time, astronomers are seeing signs
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that this relationship between the amount of stars and elements
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does not hold true for the very earliest Galaxies. A report in
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the Journal nature Astronomy suggests the reason is likely to
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be that these very early Galaxies are quite literally
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still in the process of being created. And so they simply
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haven't had the time to create any of the heavy elements.
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The Universe is teeming with Galaxies, immense collections of
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stars and gas. And as we peer deep into the cosmos, we're
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seeing them near and far because the light has spent so much time
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reaching us, the further away a galaxy is we essentially are
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looking back in time, thereby allowing us to construct a
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visual narrative of their evolution through cosmic
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history.
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Observations have shown that Galaxies through the last 12
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billion years, that is 56, the edge of the Universe have been
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living their life in the form of equilibrium. There appears to be
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a fundamental tight relationship between, on the one hand, how
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many stars they've formed and on the other, how many heavy
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elements they've formed.
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Now, in this context, heavy elements means everything
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heavier than hydrogen and helium. And astronomers refer to
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these elements as metals. Now, this relationship makes a lot of
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sense because originally the Universe only consisted of
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primarily hydrogen and helium. The two lightest elements, all
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the heavier elements such as carbon oxygen and iron were
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created later by stars either during their lives or when they
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died.
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The very first galaxy should therefore be unpolluted by heavy
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elements. But until recently, astronomers haven't been able to
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look that far back in time. In addition to being further away.
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The reason is that the longer light has to travel through
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space, the redder it becomes because space itself tends to
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stretch out and expand.
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And that means everything in it is doing the same thing
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including light waves and for the most distant Galaxies, you
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have to look all the way back into the infrared part of the
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spectrum. And only with the recent launch of the web Space
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telescope have astronomers been able to do this and the vistas
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that Webb have shown us so far have not disappointed.
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The infrared space telescope has repeatedly broken its own record
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for finding the most distant galaxy. And now it finally seems
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that we're reaching an epoch in Space Time where the very first
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Galaxies were created. This is just a few 100 million years
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after the Big Bang itself. This new study is discovered what
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seems to be some of the very first Galaxies which are still
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in the process of being formed.
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And it's helping to change our understanding of the Universe.
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Astronomers have always been looking for the relationship
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between turtle stellar mass of a galaxy and the amount of heavy
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elements. It contains usually the more massive a galaxy, the
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more heavy elements it has. But this relationship is now being
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challenged by these new observations.
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When they analyzed the light from 16 of these early Galaxies,
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astronomers saw that they had significantly less heavy
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elements compared to what you'd expect to find in terms of
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stellar mass and the amount of new stars they produced. In
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fact, the Galaxies turned out to have on average four times less
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heavy elements than later in the Universe.
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The results are in stark contrast to the current model
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Galaxies evolve in a form of equilibrium throughout most of
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the history of the Universe. Mind you, this result is not
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entirely surprising theoretical models of galaxy formation based
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on detailed computer programs do predict something similar. But
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this is the first time we've actually seen it.
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The explanation it's proposed by the authors is simply that what
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we're witnessing are Galaxies being created. Gravity has
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already created the first lumps of gas together and this gas has
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collapsed to form the first stars. If the Galaxies then
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lived their lives undisturbed, the stars would quickly enrich
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them with heavy elements.
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But in between the Galaxies at that time, large amounts of
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fresh unpolluted gas streaming down onto the Galaxies literally
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faster than stars can keep up. One of the study's authors,
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Claudia Lagos from the University Of Western Australia
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says the results provide the first insights into the earliest
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stages of galaxy formation which appear to be more intimately
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connected with the gas between the Galaxies than previously
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thought.
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Until basically right before the JWT was available, we couldn't
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really see Galaxies in that first billion years of evolution
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or we could see very extreme Galaxies. So I guess the hope
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was always that the JWST would be able to see the more normal
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Galaxies around the extremely early times of the Universe.
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So just for reference, we think the Universe is about 14 billion
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years old. So we're talking about that first one. So it
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really was trying to push to get to a view of the normal Galaxies
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around that time. And that's what a lot of people have been
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doing this first year of JC data. When you look.
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Around here, there are some ellipticals, but the spiral
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galaxy such as the milky way. That seems to be the pretty
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standard cookie cutter that we see.
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Yeah, that's right. So in the, yeah, as you say in what we call
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the local Universe, those are typical Galaxies. So you have
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the most massive worms, these are very rare and similarly in
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the very early Universe, you have extremely bright Galaxies
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that are very rare. So we always wonder what happens when you
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start to get to the more numerous Galaxies, how would
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they look like? And that's the question we're trying to address
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here.
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You guys aren't just talking about the shape of the galaxy.
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You're also talking about its metallic, the chemicals that
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make up the stars in those Galaxies.
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Yeah, that's right. So one of the things that has been quite
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extraordinary is that we observe these relationships between
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galaxy properties in the local Universe that seems to hold
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even, you know, 10, 12 billion years in the past.
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So if we look at in this case, we are looking at the amount of
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stars in Galaxies, the rate in which they are forming stars and
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the amount of all the chemical composition of the Galaxies. And
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we see these three properties are very strongly correlated in
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the local Universe. And it just turns out that as far as we
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could look before the JWST, all the Galaxies seem to follow the
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same relationship.
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So that's how it became to be known as a fundamental relation
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of Galaxies. But it turns out that it's very early Galaxies
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not follow that same relationship, which it's
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surprising and not so much in the sense that it's a very
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extraordinary time for the formation of Galaxies where a
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lot of them are forming their first or second generation of
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stars.
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So I think it was incredibly exciting to see that when you go
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so early, these relationships are, they start to break. It's
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not surprising, but we didn't really know. And also in which
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way they start to break is very interesting.
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So we have stars forming the early Universe and different
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types of stars die at different rates and they have different
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chemical compositions when they reach their end stars eight
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times or more the size of our Sun, the mass of our Sun.
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I should say they can grow really big and really massive
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and they can even be producing iron in their core before they
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explode as supernovae. When they do this, they then see the
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Universe with that iron and that becomes part of the next
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generation of stars.
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And as that cycle repeats itself with all these different
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elements from oxygen and carbon through to iron, then gradually
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you'll see a steady increase in what we call the metallic of
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these Galaxies because of that evolution. Yeah, exactly. You're
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saying that with the very earlier stars and Galaxies that
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curvature, that graph isn't the way it should be.
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Yeah, that's very much the main conclusion. And in fact, because
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as I was saying, we have these three that are strongly
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correlated in Galaxies that a lot of that is coming down to
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how Galaxies or the average galaxy is growing.
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And we call that they're growing in some, in some sort of
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equilibrium where where there are different processes that are
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balancing each other to give you this beautiful correlation. But
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what we think is happening is that very early on in the
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Universe, there's no balance between these different physical
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processes.
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And for that, I mean, how quickly a galaxy is gaining gas
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from around itself, how quickly you form stars out of that gas.
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And then similarly, as you say, how quickly some of those stars
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return elements back into the interstellar medium, which would
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be the gas inside the galaxy.
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So all these processes are clearly not balancing each other
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in the way we see later on and all the way down to our local
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Universe, which we see still very much are in a good balance.
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It's not necessarily crazy to think that balance is broken
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because of how much, how much is going on early, there's a lot of
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gas around Galaxies.
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A lot of that is already coal gas or, you know, standard in
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astronomy, I suppose. So it is quite easy to form out of that
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gas. We think that gas is also what we call pristine. So there
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's no metal in that gas. It's pretty much just he or hydrogen.
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So that seems to be breaking some of these balance.
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So, what we're really seeing here is the influence that the
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first as population three stars would have had.
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Yeah, that's right. Whether they can reach far enough into
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affecting, for example, Galaxies nearby them or not, for example,
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they're able to just pollute the most immediate medium. And that
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's the kind of thing that will make a difference here.
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So a lot of these Galaxies could have, as I said, there be on the
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1st, 2nd or third generation of the stars being formed. So I
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think it's very exciting because we're seeing kind of a
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convolution of all these processes and how they differ
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from what we think they look like further in the future if
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you want. So closer to the current time.
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What's the difference in the metallic you're seeing with
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these stars compared to what we see in the Universe around us
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all for that matter, for the 12 billion years since then.
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So what we're seeing is these Galaxies are about 3 to 5 times
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less what we call metal rich than they should be. So they
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have about 3 to 5 times oxygen that we were expecting them to
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have based on these relationships that we see over
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the last 12 billion years. It's a big difference. It's quite
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significant.
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And even though the sample we have, it's a bit less than 20
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Galaxies is not huge. So hopefully, you know, we start to
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get more and more data to make this a very solid result, it's
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very significant. So the difference is large enough that
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even with the small sample is significant, what.
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We're seeing is we're seeing a big step before we reach the
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curve, the metallic on stars appears to follow a standard
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trend.
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Yes, that's right. So you are seeing in the roughly a billion
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years later, it looks like all Galaxies are back on track if
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you want in this relationship. So it's a very, you know, it's a
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fast.
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Transition and this corresponds to the epoch of realization that
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you're looking into, isn't it? Yes, that's right.
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We're right into that. Yeah, that's.
00:12:12
An important time in the Universe's existence. Yeah, that
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's.
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The first time. Well, the closest to us if you want, where
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we see a full change on the ionization of the gas in the
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Universe. So we're going from a Universe that is completely
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neutral. So all atoms are in the neutral form to pretty much
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everything being ionized after this, what we call re
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ionization.
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So before that there weren't any stars, so to speak. And then the
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stars started ionizing the Universe through ultraviolet
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radiation affecting the hydrogen instead of it being opaque, it
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becomes clear and we have the Universe which we see today.
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Exactly. That's exactly right. So all that transition happens
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around that first billion years. So it is obviously connected
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with how this process is going on. This realization is
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happening.
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With the James Webb Space telescope. One of the big hopes
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is that we will see one of these very first population three
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stars, the stars formed out of the pristine gas of the Big
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Bang. Are we getting close to that yet?
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That's a great question. This is one of the main hopes for the
00:13:18
JWST. We are not, we haven't yet detected that. But I think the
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hope in the community with some of these, I think people are
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expecting to see that in the next five years. So it could
00:13:30
happen any time because sometimes some of these things
00:13:32
are lacked, right?
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Whether you happen to see the, you know, the right at the right
00:13:37
time in the right place, more or more or less. But hope is that
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yes, it's achievable and we should be able to see that
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they're very bright. I mean, still need a massive space
00:13:47
telescope to see them. But the hope is that they're bright
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enough that we can start to see the first one in the coming
00:13:52
years.
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Yeah, I guess the big question is we don't really know what to,
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I mean, we have a rough idea of what to look like spectra wise,
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but we don't really know what they're going to be, whether
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they're going to be small or the big theory is there'll be huge,
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massive things, two or three times the size of the Sun. We
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don't really.
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Know that's actually true. So we think theoretically, we expect
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them to be more, a lot more massive than the Sun. Just
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because generally to reach the very small masses for stars, you
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need, you need actually metals. So you need all these extra
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elements that you were describing earlier, like carbon,
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oxygen, etcetera.
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And we don't expect that to be present, right? So the theory is
00:14:32
that these stars could be much more massive, but you, it could
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be, you know, maybe 50 times the Sun's mass or it could be, you
00:14:39
know, 200 100 times and maybe that's the type of, you know,
00:14:43
difference that will make it possible to discover it in the
00:14:46
next year versus maybe five or so years.
00:14:49
So, you're right. I mean, this is going to be a big surprise
00:14:52
for sure. And it's the kind of thing that would really help us
00:14:55
build a much more solid understanding of how stars form,
00:14:59
especially these very early stars.
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It's the quicker it goes through its fuel supply. When you're
00:15:05
talking about really massive stars, they don't live long.
00:15:08
They're the James Dean of the astronomy world, as we like to
00:15:12
say, is that a problem, the fact that you're looking for stars,
00:15:16
which aren't going to be around for a long time anyway.
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Yes, that's part of the problem because that makes it, you need
00:15:22
many of these, basically, you need many of these to have a
00:15:25
chance of seeing it. Right. So, the fact that they're short
00:15:29
lived makes it a bit more difficult. But hopefully,
00:15:32
because there's continuous scanning over different parts of
00:15:35
the sky that will make it possible.
00:15:37
But you're right. I mean, if, if we had AJ WT with a very wide
00:15:42
field of view, so that means that sampling a large fraction
00:15:45
of the sky every time, that would make it a lot easier
00:15:48
because then you're seeing a much larger proportion. Right.
00:15:51
Well, they're building that now, aren't they? Yeah.
00:15:53
Yeah. Yeah, exactly. So if it's not, if it's not the WSD, it's
00:15:58
probably gonna be the next generation Rubin or, or other
00:16:02
based. But there is a lot of hope and, and, and justified
00:16:06
hope that this should happen with the JW.
00:16:09
Yeah. So the, the hope now is to start building large samples of
00:16:13
Galaxies around this epoch of realization. So we are now on
00:16:17
the dozens, but we want to get to two thousands in the next
00:16:21
year or so. And that's where we're heading. It's definitely
00:16:24
going to happen in about a year or so. So exciting times before.
00:16:28
James Webb, the standard view based on what we could see
00:16:32
through Hubble was that earlier Galaxies looked very much like
00:16:35
train wrecks. Yes. Now, now as we're seeing these new images,
00:16:41
that vision is disappearing, isn't it? Yeah, absolutely.
00:16:44
And that's not necessarily unexpected, even if you look at
00:16:47
Galaxies nearby and you look at them, which is the h is looking
00:16:53
at these very early Galaxies, they look very regular, they
00:16:56
look like train wrecks as you were saying.
00:16:58
But we know that as soon as you look at in the optical or the
00:17:01
near infrared, they look pretty regular Galaxies. And that's
00:17:04
basically what we're starting to see here that a lot of them
00:17:07
don't look like train train wrecks, even though you know,
00:17:10
these are extremely early Galaxies. So it's very, it's
00:17:14
nice to see that for sure.
00:17:15
That's Claudia Lagos from the University Of Western Australia
00:17:19
and this Space Time still to come. NASA's Psyche mission
00:17:24
finally blasts off bound for the asteroid Psyche and the Americas
00:17:28
are mesmerized by a spectacular annular eclipse all that and
00:17:33
more still to come on Space Time.
00:17:52
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00:20:00
You're listening to Space Time, Space Time with Stuart Gary NASA
00:20:06
's Psyche spacecraft is finally on its way undertaking a six
00:20:10
year 3.6 billion kilometer voyage to a mysterious metal
00:20:15
rich asteroid which could hold secrets about the formation of
00:20:18
planets like the Earth Psyche successfully launched aboard a
00:20:22
SpaceX Falcon heavy rocket from launch complex 39 A at the
00:20:26
Kennedy Space Center in Florida.
00:20:28
Falcon heavy is in start up good call out that the Falcon heavy
00:20:32
is in start up. Now we're going to get the go at T minus 45
00:20:36
seconds.
00:20:37
We are go for launch. All systems are go to send the
00:20:42
Psyche spacecraft to Deep Space and here we go with the final
00:20:46
seconds of launch T minus 10 987654321 engine ignition and
00:21:00
lift off of Falcon heavy and Psyche on a mission to a metal
00:21:05
asteroid in Deep Space to study the building blocks of our
00:21:08
planet's inner space vehicles. Pitching gun range. M one D
00:21:14
chamber pressure is nominal power and Tory nominal the
00:21:17
power.
00:21:18
Looking at the data for all 27 engines, supersonic, all chamber
00:21:22
pressures look good and Falcon is supersonic. Now throttling
00:21:25
down in preparation for max Q. What will happen here?
00:21:29
The side boosters will be at full power and the center core
00:21:32
will be at a reduced power to go through max Q to reduce the
00:21:36
pressures on the structure of the launch vehicle coming up in
00:21:39
30 seconds. We'll start getting ready to have those boosters cut
00:21:43
off vehicles looking good, pitching down range. All Tory
00:21:47
looks really good. So far data is looking really good.
00:21:49
All 27 engines of the Falcon heavy putting down ÂŁ5.1 million
00:21:55
of thrust standing by now for booster engine cut off for those
00:21:59
side boosters, the center core booster will continue on engine
00:22:03
cut off side booster separation confirmed side boosters coming
00:22:06
off the rocket MVAC engine chill has started and there we start
00:22:09
to chill on stage two as we get ready for Miko on the center
00:22:13
core stage, stage two will continue chilling down making
00:22:17
sure the fuel and propellants are flowing through that MVAC
00:22:20
getting ready for ignition.
00:22:21
Those boosters will have three burns, two re entry burns and
00:22:25
one final landing burn comes back down at LZ one and LZ two
00:22:30
landing zone one and two here at the cape. Next up is main engine
00:22:33
cut off of that center booster. After that cuts off, there will
00:22:36
be a series of steps that will happen in close succession.
00:22:40
Main engine cut off, the center core stage will separate and
00:22:43
then we'll start the second stage burn. The first of two
00:22:47
burns today that was shut down.
00:22:49
Looking main engine cut out the to there you have Miko stage
00:22:53
separation confirmed and there it goes, the second stage
00:22:56
lighting up its FTS is safe, Bermuda calling out the
00:23:00
communication stations separation confirmed blue has
00:23:04
been completed and they're an extended coast right now and
00:23:07
there go the ferrings revealing Psyche, the ferring falling away
00:23:10
back to Earth SpaceX has their recovery vessel is on a nominal
00:23:14
trajectory.
00:23:14
They recovery vessel, Bob is out in the waters right now looking
00:23:18
to recover both of them getting a good burn. Now from the second
00:23:21
stage, this lasts about four minutes. We are going out over
00:23:25
the Atlantic Ocean heading south towards southern Africa. The
00:23:29
glowing engine of the stage two, we should see in about 20
00:23:33
seconds.
00:23:34
We should see the booster entry burn which should be the one
00:23:38
engine on both sides. Boosters. Yeah, all, all the data so far,
00:23:42
telemetry is looking nominal. I see the telemetry chilling down
00:23:46
the engines for that booster entry burn on the side boosters,
00:23:50
starting up in the telemetry.
00:23:52
Everything's looking nominal. The vehicle second stage is
00:23:54
performing very well and side boosters are coming back entry
00:24:00
burn, start up and there we just heard booster, entry burns start
00:24:04
up is happening and on the side boosters, boosters entry burn
00:24:08
shut down booster entry burn on one and shut down booster entry
00:24:13
burn on the second side booster and shut down.
00:24:15
Next burn is the final landing burn and Pynyfts is saved and
00:24:22
for folks who are in the area, you end up hearing that loud
00:24:26
sonic boom, that thunder clap just about the time they make
00:24:31
land stage two is on a nominal trajectory.
00:24:33
You and I here at hangar A E just a couple of miles away from
00:24:36
this landing zone, we certainly hear it and feel it. And I see
00:24:40
now that the booster side boosters are supersonic,
00:24:43
transitioning to transonic.
00:24:49
Here it comes. I don't know, Darryl, but that that sonic boom
00:24:54
was great for us. I'm sure Jim is excited over there. There's
00:24:57
the second one, I'm sure the host desk over there is feeling
00:25:00
that really well, literally our monitors were shaking as those,
00:25:04
both those boosters broke the sound barrier and we just heard
00:25:07
booster landing confirmed as both the landing zone one and
00:25:11
two.
00:25:11
Everything looks great and then the call out for 201 stage two
00:25:17
engine cut off. So Darryl, this will put us into that 45 minute
00:25:21
coast allowing us to do the two side boosters on their landing
00:25:27
pads coming down more staggered than I'd seen them before, but
00:25:31
nonetheless, perfect landings for them.
00:25:33
Both about an hour after launch, the spacecraft separated from
00:25:37
the upper stage of its launch vehicle and established two way
00:25:40
communications with NASA's Deep Space Network complex in
00:25:43
Canberra telling mission control that it's in good health.
00:25:47
Getting here has been a long drawn out process for the Psyche
00:25:51
mission.
00:25:52
The project suffered a number of delays which have pushed the
00:25:55
mission back by over a year, the spacecraft missed its original
00:25:59
launch date of August 2022 because of software testing
00:26:03
problems. And the COVID-19 pandemic didn't help either more
00:26:08
recently.
00:26:08
The mission suffered another delay, this one for just over a
00:26:11
week in order to give engineers more time to verify parameters
00:26:15
used for nitrogen coal gas thrusters that orient the
00:26:18
spacecraft. Those parameters required changes after the
00:26:22
engineers concluded that the thrusters will be operating at
00:26:25
warmer temperatures than previously predicted.
00:26:28
See, operating the thrusters within temperature limits is
00:26:30
essential. In order to ensure the long term health of the
00:26:33
units. The verification work involved running simulations and
00:26:38
making adjustments to flight parameters and procedures. Still
00:26:41
it's up there and flying nominally now. And by August
00:26:45
2029 the spacecraft will begin to orbit the 279 kilometer wide
00:26:50
asteroid Psyche.
00:26:51
The only metal class asteroid ever to be explored integrated
00:26:55
onto the spacecraft is NASA's Deep Space optical
00:26:58
communications technology demonstration. A test of Deep
00:27:02
Space laser communications systems that could support
00:27:05
future exploration missions by providing more bandwidth to
00:27:08
transmit data than traditional radio frequency communications.
00:27:12
The first opportunity to power on the optical communications
00:27:15
technology demonstration is expected in about three weeks
00:27:18
time by which point Psyche will be roughly 7.5 million
00:27:22
kilometers from the Earth.
00:27:24
This will be the agency's first test of a laser communication
00:27:28
system beyond the Moon while the transceiver is hosted aboard
00:27:32
Psyche, the tech demo won't actually be relaying Psyche
00:27:35
mission data. But if it works, you can expect to see it in more
00:27:39
missions in the future. Asteroid Psyche is located in the main
00:27:44
asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter.
00:27:46
Its high iron nickel metal content led astronomers to think
00:27:50
that it may be the partial core of a planet decimal. A building
00:27:53
block of an early planet 16 Psyche is a large m type
00:27:58
metallic asteroid. It was discovered on the 17th of March
00:28:01
18 52. And it's named after the goddess Psyche. One of the most
00:28:05
celebrated characters of Greek mythology.
00:28:08
She was known as the goddess of the soul. In fact, her name
00:28:11
means breath of life and she was linked closely to the inner
00:28:15
human world. A beauty is said to have rifled that of Aphrodite,
00:28:19
the goddess of love as for the prefect 16, that simply
00:28:23
signifies that it was the 16th minor planet to be discovered.
00:28:27
Psyche is the largest and most massive of the M type asteroids
00:28:31
and one of the dozen most massive asteroids known. In
00:28:34
fact, it contains about one per cent of the total mass of the
00:28:37
entire main asteroid belt.
00:28:39
Historically, it was always hypothesized that Psyche was an
00:28:43
exposed metallic core, probably resulting from a collision with
00:28:46
another body that stripped away the crust and mantle of the
00:28:49
original larger differentiated parent body, which would have
00:28:52
been around 500 kilometers in diameter. A second hypothesis is
00:28:56
that Psyche was disrupted and then gravitationally re accreted
00:29:00
into a mix of metal and silica.
00:29:02
In this case, it may be a candidate for the parent body of
00:29:05
a class of stony iron meteorites. The latest
00:29:09
hypothesis is that Psyche may be a differentiated object like
00:29:13
ceres or vesta, but it experienced fo volcanism while
00:29:17
cooling. Now, if true, this model predicts that the metal
00:29:20
would be highly enriched only in those regions containing relic
00:29:23
volcanic centers.
00:29:25
And it's this third hypothesis which has been bolstered by
00:29:28
recent radio observations of the asteroid Saki, principal
00:29:32
investigator Lindy Elkins Tant from Arizona State University
00:29:36
says the mission will be undertaking a 26 month science
00:29:39
investigation of what really is a very different kind of world
00:29:42
in our solar system as for the 1st 100 days of the flight
00:29:46
getting towards Psyche.
00:29:47
Well, that's a commissioning phase called the initial
00:29:50
checkout period to make sure the flight systems are healthy. Key
00:29:54
to the checkout is ensuring that the electric thrusters are ready
00:29:57
to begin continuous firing for long stretches of the journey.
00:30:01
There's also active check out of the science instruments, the
00:30:04
magnetometer, the gamma ray and neutron spectrometer and the
00:30:08
multi spectral imager that'll start in about six weeks time.
00:30:12
Now, during this period, the imager will make the first
00:30:14
images for calibration purposes, targeting standard stars and a
00:30:18
star cluster at a variety of different exposures with several
00:30:21
different filters. Then the Saki team will activate an automatic
00:30:25
feed of publicly viewable raw images online and that'll keep
00:30:29
going for the whole duration of the mission. This report from
00:30:33
NASA TV.
00:30:38
It's a shame. But living in the city very rarely do you get to
00:30:42
see stars?
00:30:45
I feel like I have a, a new connection to them in a way that
00:30:49
I haven't before.
00:30:50
If I'm out in the desert and I look up at the sky, you just see
00:30:53
millions and millions of places that we should be going.
00:30:57
It's almost baked into our DNA, the desire to go and explore.
00:31:01
Right. That's the whole reason why we left the forest and then
00:31:03
traveled across oceans just to see what's out there.
00:31:06
I was born in 1969 which is the year we landed on the Moon. So I
00:31:10
am a space baby.
00:31:14
When I was a kid, there were guys driving cars on the mo
00:31:18
they're driving cars on the Moon. That, that's so cool.
00:31:20
Right. I wanna do that.
00:31:22
All the rocky planets that we know of all have got a metal
00:31:26
core in their center and especially for the Earth, it's
00:31:29
the source of our magnetic field, but we don't know a lot
00:31:32
about our core, what we've learned about it. We learn
00:31:35
indirectly because we can't go there. It's too.
00:31:37
Hot, the pressure is too high. Our instruments would melt,
00:31:40
can't drill a hole that deep in the Earth or other planets. It
00:31:42
turns out we can study a planet core out in space because there
00:31:47
's this one object, one object called Psyche.
00:31:50
16 Psyche is an asteroid that orbits the Sun out between Mars
00:31:54
and Jupiter.
00:31:55
It is the only asteroid that we're aware of that is 95% metal
00:32:01
or more and is really huge. It's about 200 kilometers across in
00:32:05
one axis.
00:32:06
So it's about the size of Massachusetts.
00:32:08
It's believed that it may be a remnant core of an early planet
00:32:13
that was formed in the very, very earliest parts of the
00:32:15
formation of the solar system.
00:32:17
And after this planet started forming, and this metal core
00:32:20
formed inside of that and collided with other bodies that
00:32:23
then stripped off the rocky metal, leaving this core in
00:32:26
place.
00:32:29
The first thing that came actually was the theory. Some
00:32:32
people from Jet Propulsion Laboratory contacted me and
00:32:35
said, we would like to plan a mission that would test your
00:32:38
hypothesis.
00:32:39
And that starts you down a road that takes years. So we wrote a
00:32:45
proposal to send a NASA spacecraft to visit this, this
00:32:49
big ball of metal. And then Lindy gets a phone call, you
00:32:52
win.
00:32:54
And then we're all like, oh my God, now we have to do it.
00:32:58
Psyche gives us the opportunity to visit a corps, the only way
00:33:01
that humankind can ever do. And it would be the first metal
00:33:04
object that humankind has ever visited.
00:33:06
We've been approved to go. So we talked with our mission design
00:33:10
and navigation team and in fact, they were able to come up with
00:33:13
what is probably the most optimal trajectory doing a Mars
00:33:16
fly by flies past Mars gives us a Gravity assist uses that
00:33:22
propulsion system to then slowly creep up.
00:33:29
SSL is building the solar electric propulsion chassis.
00:33:33
When we do the mechanical physical integration of each
00:33:37
instrument on the spacecraft, we'll work hand in hand with
00:33:41
each of the providers to get out the Psyche and do a discovery
00:33:45
mission.
00:33:45
We've figured out a way for many, many people to build
00:33:49
something together. So complicated. No one person can
00:33:52
understand it, but it all has to work together perfectly for
00:33:55
decades without fail.
00:33:56
Just the fact that these things work at all as a thrill. It's
00:34:00
just a testament to a lot of the engineers at JP L and the
00:34:03
companies that we collaborate with that they can build these
00:34:06
things.
00:34:07
It's exciting for me to be able to be a woman winning and
00:34:11
leading a Deep Space mission. The only previous woman who
00:34:16
competed one and led a Deep Space mission was Maria Zuber
00:34:19
who is my friend and mentor at MIT.
00:34:22
And so my drive is to make everyone feel welcome and to
00:34:27
have every voice heard. We want as many undergraduates as we
00:34:30
can, we want to involve as much of the public as we can. We want
00:34:33
people to feel like this is their mission.
00:34:36
You get that first picture back. And one of the first things that
00:34:39
goes through myself. Thank God, I didn't leave the lens cap on.
00:34:43
We will put our pictures out there as soon as they come down.
00:34:47
So we'll discover at the same time that the public discovers
00:34:51
we'll be scratching our heads. And it's like, II, I don't know
00:34:53
what's going on at the same time. Everybody else is like,
00:34:55
wow, that, what is that? I don't know. Let's figure it out.
00:35:00
I did get to look at Psyche through an optical telescope in
00:35:03
my backyard. Some wonderful colleagues brought over their
00:35:06
telescope on a fortuitous night. It's a very, very tiny faint dot
00:35:11
And that made a bunch of us cry to think that we could send
00:35:15
something to investigate that speck of light.
00:35:17
We can understand this Universe that we live in, we can explore
00:35:21
it, we can learn about it and we can be a part of something which
00:35:24
is much bigger than just us or just this planet. We will see
00:35:27
new things when we visit a world made of metal.
00:35:44
And in that report from NASA TV, we heard from Psyche, principal
00:35:48
investigator Lindy Elkins Tanin from Arizona State University
00:35:52
Psyche, deputy principal investigator and imager
00:35:56
instrument lead Jim Bell, also from Arizona State from NASA's
00:35:59
Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California.
00:36:02
We heard from Psyche, deputy project systems engineer, Tracy
00:36:06
Drain Psyche project systems engineer David O and Psyche
00:36:10
Project Manager, Henry Stone and from Space Systems Laurel. We
00:36:15
heard from chassis program manager, Steve Scott.
00:36:18
This is Space Time still to come. An annular eclipse
00:36:23
mesmerizes the Americas. And later in the science report, new
00:36:27
studies show that some 20 per cent of Australian teenagers are
00:36:30
vaping all that and more still to come on Space Time.
00:36:50
On October 14th. This year, the Moon aligned perfectly with the
00:36:54
Sun and the Earth to produce an annular solar eclipse. The
00:36:58
spectacle bathed millions of Americans in a lunar shadow as
00:37:02
the Moon blocked out most of the Sun's rays, an annular eclipse
00:37:06
occurs when the Moon passes in front of the Sun, but he's too
00:37:09
far from the Earth to completely obscure it.
00:37:12
That only happens in a total eclipse. See the Moon's orbit
00:37:16
around the Earth isn't completely circular, it's
00:37:18
slightly elongated. And so there are times when the Moon is a bit
00:37:22
closer to the Earth here and times when it's a bit further
00:37:25
away apogee and when the Moon is at or near its furthest distance
00:37:30
from the Earth apogee during an eclipse, it becomes an annular
00:37:34
eclipse.
00:37:35
Now, if the line up is perfect, it leaves the Sun's edges
00:37:38
exposed in a red orange ring, often referred to as the ring of
00:37:41
fire as well as people on the ground. The celestial wonder was
00:37:45
also observed by NASA's epic or Earth polychromatic imaging
00:37:49
camera aboard the Deep Space Climate Observatory spacecraft,
00:37:53
a joint NASA NOAA and US Air Force Satellite.
00:37:56
This sensor provides frequent global views of the Earth from
00:37:59
its position in the grung l one point. That's a gravitational
00:38:03
well where the forces of the Earth and Sun balance each other
00:38:06
out located about 1.5 million kilometers from the Earth's
00:38:09
surface.
00:38:10
The spectacular observations showed a ghostly dark shadow
00:38:14
falling across the Western United States starting in
00:38:17
Oregon. Although cloudy skies blocked out the view for some
00:38:20
sky watchers, the path of annular. Yes, that's how it's
00:38:24
said. Then moved south east across Nevada, Utah, Arizona,
00:38:28
Colorado and New Mexico before finally passing over Texas and
00:38:32
then out over the Gulf Of Mexico near Corpus Christi.
00:38:36
The annular eclipse was also partially visible across Mexico
00:38:39
in countries in Central And South America. For those on the
00:38:43
annular path, the times of maximum annular range from a few
00:38:47
seconds at the outer edge to a maximum of around 4.5 minutes at
00:38:51
the center of the path. The next annular solar eclipse visible
00:38:54
from the United States won't occur until the 21st of June
00:38:57
2039.
00:38:59
But there will be a total solar eclipse to darken America's
00:39:02
skies from Texas to Maine on Monday, April the eighth next
00:39:06
year, we'll keep you informed. This is Space Time and time now
00:39:28
to take a brief look at some of the other stories making news in
00:39:30
science this week with a science report.
00:39:33
Well, despite all the health warnings and confirmed links to
00:39:36
cancer, a new study has found that 20 per cent of Australian
00:39:40
teenagers are now vaping the findings reported in the medical
00:39:44
journal of Australia calls for urgent efforts to reduce the
00:39:48
uptake in use of E cigarettes among teens.
00:39:51
The study which is one of the largest surveys of Australian
00:39:54
adolescent e cigarette use ever undertaken, found that 1/5 of
00:39:57
young people had vaped in the past 12 months. The authors
00:40:01
surveyed 4204 high school students from 70 schools across
00:40:05
New South Wales, Queensland and Western Australia. They found
00:40:10
that 26 per cent of respondents had used e cigarettes with the
00:40:13
average age of first use being 14.
00:40:16
The survey also found that the prevalence of use over the past
00:40:19
12 months was higher for boys and non binary participants than
00:40:23
for girls. The authors are calling for a multi level
00:40:26
approach through policy investment in prevention and
00:40:28
cessation support as well as communication campaigns in order
00:40:32
to tackle the problem.
00:40:35
Scientists are warning that the family of diabetes, drugs
00:40:38
including a ZEC are associated with an increased risk of
00:40:41
gastrointestinal issues. A report in the journal of the
00:40:45
American Medical Association is information from a health
00:40:48
database to compare potential side effects of glucagon like
00:40:51
peptide, one agonists like rat and se melat, which is a zemp
00:40:56
with buPROPion naltrexone or Contrave another obesity
00:41:00
medication.
00:41:01
The researchers say seme glut and irregular tide were
00:41:05
associated with increased risks of pancreatitis, gastroparesis
00:41:08
and bowel obstruction.
00:41:11
A new study shows that the likelihood of hailstorms has
00:41:15
dropped dramatically across most parts of Australia over the last
00:41:19
four decades. Understanding how hailstorm frequency has changed
00:41:23
over time will help emergency services build resilience
00:41:26
against future hail events by studying atmospheric patterns
00:41:30
across Australia.
00:41:31
Over the past 40 years. Scientists from the University
00:41:34
Of New South Wales and the Bureau Of Meteorology have
00:41:37
discovered that the number of hell prone days has decreased
00:41:40
across much of Australia. But amazingly, it's actually
00:41:43
increased up to approximately 40 per cent in some heavily
00:41:46
populated areas.
00:41:48
The study reported in the journal nature represents the
00:41:51
first continental scale analysis of hail hazard frequency trends
00:41:55
across Australia. Researchers say that not just any
00:41:58
thunderstorm can produce hail, hail storms require certain
00:42:02
atmospheric ingredients in order to form one of the important
00:42:06
ingredients is that the atmosphere needs to be unstable.
00:42:09
This means there's propensity for updrafts to form updrafts
00:42:13
occur when there's warm air near the ground and cooler air
00:42:16
further up. And if a little bit of that warmer air gets into the
00:42:19
cooler air, then it rises like a balloon and it draws more air
00:42:23
into the updraft.
00:42:24
There also needs to be enough moisture in the updraft for
00:42:27
there to be suspended liquid water and ice all swirling
00:42:30
around high up in the storm. Another factor is that hail
00:42:34
melts as it falls. And so even if you have hail forming up
00:42:38
high, it has to be large enough to survive melting to actually
00:42:41
reach the ground as a block of ice.
00:42:43
And finally, hall formation is enhanced by wind shear, the
00:42:47
changing properties of wind by height, that is the wind changes
00:42:51
direction of velocity to get higher in the atmosphere. If
00:42:55
there's a lot of wind shear, then the storm tends to be more
00:42:57
severe and more prone to forming hail. When all these factors are
00:43:02
present, the atmospheric conditions become hail prone.
00:43:06
A new study has suggested that in some fields, at least a
00:43:09
quarter of clinical trials might be problematic or even entirely
00:43:13
made up. Tim Mendham from Australian Skeptics says it
00:43:17
shows a serious problem with the current peer review method.
00:43:20
The issue of learned papers, scientific papers, how accurate
00:43:24
they are is not acknowledged for a long time. It's always been
00:43:28
seen as an issue and people haven't been investigating it.
00:43:30
The trouble is what happens with clinical especially clinical
00:43:32
trials, medical trials is probably the they're looking at
00:43:35
is that when a paper is submitted, it goes to a
00:43:38
supposedly learned person who says yet this is ok, publish.
00:43:42
But half the time the learned person doesn't have a lot of
00:43:43
time to look through all the papers really.
00:43:45
They're doing their other work of being a researcher, educator
00:43:48
and they are philosophically obliged to actually look at
00:43:50
other papers and think that's part of the professionalism of
00:43:53
being a scientist that they might just look at it and say,
00:43:55
yeah, it's got the right spelling and it's in the right
00:43:57
format etc, and it looks ok from a quick view and that's peer
00:44:01
review, the real peer review comes from when it's been
00:44:04
published and people can then the general public, not the
00:44:06
general public, you know, the whole profession can then look
00:44:08
at it and assess the evidence.
00:44:10
And that's where the real.
00:44:11
It's not a case therefore of actually repeating the
00:44:14
experiment to prove.
00:44:15
It's right. Well, it should be, I mean, that's what they say to
00:44:17
replicate an experiment and find out if it's true or not would
00:44:20
only happen in high profile experiment. Yeah, someone comes
00:44:23
along with a little study of how many people hurt themselves when
00:44:26
they fall over a stone.
00:44:27
Not many people are going to replicate it. It's not
00:44:28
worthwhile doing a big issue which is overturning science as
00:44:31
we know it is obviously going to get a lot of replication. The
00:44:34
trouble is there's citations where people refer to a paper as
00:44:36
if it's true.
00:44:37
And that is the problem because what happens then is that the
00:44:41
people doing the meta studies groups like Cochrane who look at
00:44:45
all the studies on a particular field and basically average out
00:44:48
the results to see if there's anything there, you know, the
00:44:50
ones that are negative results, the ones that are positive
00:44:52
results to see where the median lives or the mean to see if it's
00:44:56
worthwhile pursuing the trouble is if including in a lot of
00:45:00
negative or poor papers or even fraudulent papers.
00:45:03
Then that means their judgment is skewed. And the question is
00:45:06
how many of these might be fraudulent or negative? And that
00:45:10
requires a lot of work, obviously going into the papers,
00:45:12
what they found, what some particular study did is I think
00:45:15
he looked at 500 studies over a three year period in medical
00:45:19
research.
00:45:19
He asked for the detailed results of the data. He didn't
00:45:22
get it all the time for various reasons, but he did get it for
00:45:25
about 150 looked at those data and sort of worked out if they
00:45:29
were correct.
00:45:30
And he sort of jumped that in about 44 per cent of the time,
00:45:33
they contained at least some flawed data which he sort of
00:45:36
described as impossible statistics, incorrect
00:45:38
calculations or duplicated numbers or figures. And of
00:45:41
course, there's also the issue of fraud. People make up numbers
00:45:45
and data, they even make up entire tests and.
00:45:47
They can be influenced to go a certain way in their results. We
00:45:51
saw that with where we won't go to that now, but they can be
00:45:54
influenced by their superiors to write a paper to provide a
00:45:57
certain outcome.
00:45:58
There's various aspects. One is a publish or perish. You need to
00:46:02
have put out a lot of papers to keep your job at a university
00:46:05
and to keep your reputation up. But also yes, there is the
00:46:08
pressure to come up with a certain result and the
00:46:10
institutions themselves.
00:46:12
Apart from that, apart from that we want a particular result, our
00:46:14
sponsor is sort of keen to have that answer is that also that
00:46:17
the institutions love a lot of papers being published. It's
00:46:19
good for their reputation. The trouble is there's 44 was about
00:46:22
studies where they could get the detailed data, not names of
00:46:26
people but the detailed data, the numbers, when they couldn't
00:46:28
get that they found out there was only aggregated data.
00:46:31
They found out only about one per cent had no substance at all
00:46:34
and two per cent had flawed data. So in other words, when
00:46:36
they could get the data, they found a lot of problems when
00:46:38
they couldn't get the data, there were no problems with the
00:46:40
data, which sort of is a no brainer really.
00:46:42
And they're looking at other people doing the same sort of
00:46:44
thing in other areas apart from the area they were in and they
00:46:47
were finding the same thing. A classic case. Recently, I think
00:46:51
it came out of South America for studies about ivermectin being
00:46:54
useful in the treatment of COVID.
00:46:55
And I know people personally who were looking into that and they
00:46:58
found out that the trials that they quoted had actually never
00:47:02
been done, let alone out the data was wrong. It was made up,
00:47:05
there was no evidence of these trials ever actually been done.
00:47:08
So people were just faking information, people offer fake
00:47:11
information.
00:47:12
By copying someone else's and saying it's theirs and other
00:47:14
people just totally make it up, make up a false clinical
00:47:17
results. They claim people, we tested blah, blah blah when they
00:47:20
didn't do any of it. And that was the case with some of the
00:47:22
trials and I met them. So the reliance on scientific papers as
00:47:26
absolute accuracy is wrong.
00:47:29
And that means that the reliance on the people who do the meta
00:47:32
studies where they look across a whole range of a wide number of
00:47:35
these studies and then get an average. And that's heavily
00:47:38
relied on by people who can't afford to read every paper. They
00:47:41
rely on these averages and they might be totally skewed by
00:47:44
incorrect and false results. So it's very much a big problem.
00:47:47
It's a huge problem because peer review is all we've got. I mean,
00:47:50
that's it. That's how, you know, that if it's not peer reviewed,
00:47:54
it didn't happen. That's been the matter for years.
00:47:56
That's why you need to go beyond the initial peer review who says
00:47:59
this paper can be published to then looking at it by that when
00:48:02
it's thrown out there beyond being the beta test, you know,
00:48:05
the real thing, put it in the wider arena and see if people
00:48:08
say hang on, that's junk. It's a good thing that they have been
00:48:10
found.
00:48:11
That's Tim Ham from Australian Skeptics and that's the show for
00:48:31
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