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00:00:00
STUART GARY: This is SpaceTime series 26 episode 84 for a
00:00:03
broadcast on the 14th of July 2023. Coming up on Space Time.
00:00:09
Another milestone for NASA's Parker Solar Probe discovery of
00:00:13
Martian gullies that could have been formed by recent meltwater.
00:00:17
And a new study claims that planet Earth was formed from dry
00:00:21
rocky building blocks and the water must have come later. All
00:00:25
that and more coming up on Space Time.
00:00:29
GENERIC: Welcome to Space Time with Stuart Garry.
00:00:49
STUART GARY: NASA's Parker Solar Probe has now completed its 16th
00:00:52
close approach to the Sun. The 16th orbit included a perra
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helium on June the 22nd when the spacecraft flew to within 8.5
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million kilometers of the Sun's visible surface traveling at
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some 587 kilometers per hour.
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Mission managers report the spacecraft emerged from its
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solar close encounter healthy and operating nominally. Now on
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August the 21st, the Parker Solar Probe will swing past
00:01:18
Venus for its sixth of seven planned gravity assist fly bars
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of the planet to prepare for a smooth course.
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Mission managers at the Johns Hopkins applied physics
00:01:27
laboratory ordered a small trajectory correction maneuver
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the first in over a year, the Venus fly bar will use the
00:01:34
planet's gravity to tighten Parker's orbit around the Sun
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and set it up for a future para helium at just seven and a
00:01:40
quarter million kilometers from the Sun's surface.
00:01:44
Now, as the Sun becomes increasingly active, this per
00:01:47
helium will be especially important for learning more
00:01:49
about helio physics. NASA's Parker Solar Probe was launched
00:01:53
in 2018, its mission to observe and study the Sun's corona.
00:01:59
It'll ultimately come to within 9.86 solar radii or 6.9 million
00:02:04
kilometers of the center of the Sun.
00:02:07
By 2025 the spacecraft will be traveling at around 690
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kilometers per hour at closest approach. Now to put that
00:02:15
another way that is 0 per cent the speed of light and
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that'll make the Parker Solar Probe the fastest object ever
00:02:23
built by humans.
00:02:25
The 685 kg spacecraft will undertake a total of 24 orbits
00:02:30
around the Sun. The near Sun radiation environment is
00:02:33
predicted to cause the spacecrafts charging effects,
00:02:36
radiation damage in materials and electronics and
00:02:39
communications interruptions.
00:02:41
So the orbits will be highly elliptical with only a short
00:02:45
time spent near the Sun itself. Parker will trace the flow of
00:02:49
energy hitting the solar corona and accelerating the solar wind.
00:02:53
It'll study how energy from the lower solar atmosphere transfers
00:02:56
to and is dissipated in the corona and solar wind. And it
00:03:00
will examine the processes shape and non equilibrium velocity
00:03:04
distributions observed throughout the heliosphere.
00:03:07
Parker.
00:03:08
Solar probe will also look at how the processes in the corona
00:03:11
affect the properties of the solar wind and the heliosphere.
00:03:14
It'll determine the structure and dynamics of the plasma Matic
00:03:17
fields at the sources of the solar wind.
00:03:20
And it will observe how the magnetic field in the solar wind
00:03:23
source regions connect to the photos sphere and heliosphere.
00:03:27
Scientists want to know whether the sources of the solar wind
00:03:31
are steady or intermittent, how the structures in the corona
00:03:34
evolve into the solar wind.
00:03:36
They want to observe the mechanisms that accelerate and
00:03:39
transport energetic particles and they want to study the roles
00:03:42
of shocks, magnetic reconnection waves and turbulence in the
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acceleration of energetic particles as well as the source
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populations and physical conditions necessary for
00:03:52
energetic particle acceleration.
00:03:54
And they want to look at how energetic particles are
00:03:57
transported in the corona and the heliosphere. This report
00:04:01
from NASA TV.
00:04:06
GUEST: NASA's Parker Solar Probe is a mission to explore the Sun.
00:04:09
How can it do that? Why won't the spacecraft melt?
00:04:13
You can't face off with the Sun without packing the right gear.
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This is why solar probe is equipped with a white shield
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that reflects heat off the front and keeps things cool in the
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back.
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The heat shield is made out of a couple of different materials.
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One is carbon carbon, which is a lot like the graphite epoxy you
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might see in your golf clubs or your tennis racket, but it's
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just been super heated. The inside is a carbon foam, which
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is just another form of carbon and is actually about 97% air.
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It's a very lightweight way of making a very strong structure.
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Nobody likes a needy explorer. Solar probe can take care of
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itself. Thank you very much. And that's because it has autonomy
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software that will keep its instruments safe and cool behind
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the heat shield.
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We're too far away to joystick it into place. So it basically
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has to always be sensing whether or not the heat shield is in the
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right position and correct itself if it isn't. There are
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these things called solar limb sensors that are just poking out
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at the very edge of the shadow. And if those get illuminated,
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the spacecraft knows, oh, I'm going the wrong direction and
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can actually write itself.
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It's important to stay hydrated in the Sun. Even for a
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spacecraft, solar probes circulates water to keep the
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solar cells from overheating, it stays cool and keeps power.
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So basically water flows behind the solar rays and into the
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radiators. And so the water warms up when it's behind the
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solar cells and then cools down at the radiators. And so that
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heat transfer is happening a lot like the veins in your body.
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Heat is not the same as temperature. Temperature is a
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measurement, but heat is energy transfer. This matters because
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solar probe will be visiting the Sun's outer layer. The corona
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like all stars, the Sun is made of plasma, how tightly packed
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that plasma is depends on the layer.
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While the Sun's corona has a very high temperature, the
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plasma particles are fairly spread out. So even though the
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temperature in the corona is 2 to 3 million degrees Fahrenheit,
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the heat around the spacecraft is manageable.
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The corona and where we're going is actually not that dense at
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all, there are only a couple of particles. And so when we think
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about it, those are very hot, but we're not touching a lot of
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them. It's the kind of like when you put your hand into an oven
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and the oven might be at four or 500 F, but your hand isn't at
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405 100 F.
00:06:32
Thanks to its design and destination. This cool confident
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spacecraft is all set to explore. We can just sit back
00:06:38
and chill as Parker's solar probe takes the heat.
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STUART GARY: And in that report from NASA TV, we heard from
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Parker Solar Probe, lead engineer Betsy Cog. This is
00:06:51
Space Time still to come. Discovery of Martian gullies
00:06:55
that could have been formed by recent meltwater and the ongoing
00:06:59
debate about where the Earth's water came from. Now, a new
00:07:02
study claims the Earth formed from dry rocky building blocks
00:07:07
all that and more still to come on Space Time.
00:07:26
Scientists have discovered gullies on Mars that look like
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they may have been formed by recent liquid melt water. The
00:07:33
findings reported in the journal science offer new insights into
00:07:37
how water from melting ice could have played a role in the
00:07:40
formation of ravine like channels that cut down the sides
00:07:44
of impact craters.
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On Mars, Martian gullies look eerily similar to gullies that
00:07:49
form in Earth, especially in the dry valleys of Antarctica. And
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we know the Antarctic gullies are caused by water erosion from
00:07:57
melting glaciers in order to work out what's going on.
00:08:01
The authors built a model that simulates a sweet spot on the
00:08:04
Red Planet when conditions on Mars allowed the planet to warm
00:08:08
above freezing temperatures leading to periods of liquid
00:08:11
water on Mars when ice on and beneath the surface melts.
00:08:15
They found that when Mars tilts on its axis to 35 degrees, the
00:08:19
atmosphere becomes dense enough for brief episodes of melting to
00:08:23
occur at gully locations, they then match the data from their
00:08:27
models to periods in Mars history when the gullah in the
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planet's Terra Serena region are believed to have expanded
00:08:33
rapidly downhill from high elevation points phenomenon that
00:08:37
could not be explained without the occasional presence of
00:08:40
water.
00:08:41
One of the study's authors, Jim Head from Brown University says
00:08:44
previous research has already shown that early in the Red
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Planet's history, there was running water on the surface
00:08:50
with valley networks and lakes, but all that liquid water was
00:08:54
lost about 3 billion years ago. And since then, Mars has become
00:08:59
a polar desert.
00:09:00
This new work shows that even after that and in the recent
00:09:03
past, when Mars's axis tilts to 35 degrees, it heats up
00:09:08
sufficiently to melt snow and ice, bringing liquid water back
00:09:11
until temperatures drop and it freezes again. The findings help
00:09:16
fill in some of the missing gaps in how these gullies formed,
00:09:19
including how high they start, how severe the erosion is and
00:09:23
how far they extend down the site of craters.
00:09:27
Previous theory suggested that Martian gullies could have been
00:09:29
carved out by carbon dioxide frost which evaporates from the
00:09:33
soil causing rock and rubble to slide down slopes. But the
00:09:37
height of the gullies made many scientists theorize that
00:09:40
meltwater from glaciers had to be involved both because of the
00:09:43
distance they traveled down the slopes and how eroded the
00:09:46
gullies looked.
00:09:47
But proving that liquid water could exist on Mars since it
00:09:51
disappeared so long ago, has been difficult because
00:09:53
temperatures typically hover about 70 degrees below freezing.
00:09:57
But the results of this new study suggest that gully
00:10:00
formation was driven by periods of melting ice as well as co two
00:10:04
frost evaporation in other parts of the year. The research has
00:10:08
found that this had likely occurred repeatedly over the
00:10:10
past several million years with the most recent occurrence about
00:10:14
630 years ago.
00:10:16
They say that if ice was present in the gully locations in the
00:10:20
areas they looked at when Mars axis tilted to about 35 degrees,
00:10:24
the conditions would have been right for the ice to melt
00:10:27
because temperatures then would have risen above 273 Kelvin
00:10:31
equivalent to zero degrees Celsius.
00:10:33
The study's lead author, Jay Dixon from the California
00:10:36
Institute Of Technology says the study shows that the global
00:10:39
distribution of gullies is better explained by liquid water
00:10:43
over the last few million years. He says water explains the
00:10:47
elevation distribution in gullies in ways that carbon
00:10:50
dioxide simply can't.
00:10:53
This means that Mars must have been able to create liquid water
00:10:56
in enough volume to erode channels within the last million
00:10:59
years, which is very recent in time on the scale of Martian
00:11:03
geologic history. Despite doubts about meltwater being possible
00:11:07
and scientists never being able to model the right conditions on
00:11:10
Mars for ice to melt.
00:11:11
The authors are convinced that their meltwater theory is
00:11:14
accurate because they've seen these similar features first
00:11:17
hand in Antarctica there. Despite the cold temperatures,
00:11:21
the Sun is able to heat the ice just enough for it to melt and
00:11:25
for gully activity to occur.
00:11:27
The new study is a continuation of previous research. The team
00:11:31
started decades earlier looking at Marching gullies in a 2015
00:11:35
study. They showed that it was possible there may have been
00:11:38
many past episodes on Mars when water was able to form gullies.
00:11:42
That's if Mars tilted enough on its axis.
00:11:45
The findings encouraged them to model what that tilt was and
00:11:49
match it to the locations and altitudes of gullies that
00:11:52
formed. This paper raises ane the fundamental question of
00:11:56
whether life could exist on Mars because life as we know it, at
00:12:00
least here on Earth goes hand in hand with the presence of liquid
00:12:04
water.
00:12:05
Now, the authors say Mars will eventually tilt to 35 degrees.
00:12:09
Again, it's just a matter of time. He speculates there could
00:12:12
even be a bridge between an early warm and went. Mars and
00:12:16
the Mars we see today in terms of liquid water.
00:12:19
He says, everybody's always looking for environments that
00:12:22
could be conducive, not just to the formation of life but to the
00:12:25
preservation and continuation of it. Any micro organism that
00:12:30
might have evolved in early. Mars is going to be in places
00:12:33
where they can be comfortable in the ice and also comfortable or
00:12:36
even prosperous in liquid water in the frigid Antarctic
00:12:40
environment.
00:12:40
For example, there are organisms that exist often in stasis in
00:12:44
the ice waiting for the water to form. And so this study also
00:12:49
introduces the importance of these gullies in terms of
00:12:52
potential targets to visit during future manned exploration
00:12:56
missions of Mars. This Space Time still to come.
00:13:02
The debate continues as to whether Earth's water arrived
00:13:05
with the planet or came afterwards. And later in the
00:13:08
science report, a new study suggests the precursors of life
00:13:12
on Earth may have come about by meteorites or volcanic eruptions
00:13:17
all that and more still to come on Space Time.
00:13:36
The ongoing debate about the origins of Earth's water
00:13:39
continues with a new study claiming the planet got its
00:13:42
water well after it was formed. Now, this contradicts a study
00:13:46
released last week which suggested that water was already
00:13:48
present in the material which formed the planet 4.6 billion
00:13:52
years ago.
00:13:53
And so this to and fro debate continues, billions of years ago
00:13:59
in the giant disk of gas and dust that surrounded the early
00:14:02
nascent Sun, rocky materials that orbited around the young
00:14:07
star became larger and larger as they created more and more
00:14:10
material.
00:14:12
Eventually, these coalescing bodies turned into planet
00:14:15
decimals. Finally, the planets moons and asteroids we see
00:14:19
today, scientists are still trying to understand the details
00:14:22
of the process by which planets including the Earth were formed.
00:14:26
Now, one way scientists can research how the Earth formed is
00:14:30
by examining the magma that flow up from deep within the planet's
00:14:34
interior sea. Chemical signatures in these samples
00:14:37
contain a record of the timing and nature of the materials that
00:14:41
came together to form the Earth. It's sort of analogous to how
00:14:45
fossils provide paleontologists with clues about Earth's
00:14:48
biological past.
00:14:50
Now, a study from Carl Tech and reported in the journal science
00:14:53
advances claims that the early Earth accreted from hot dry
00:14:57
materials and that indicates or at least infers that our
00:15:01
planet's water crucial for life as we know, it must have arrived
00:15:05
later in Earth's history.
00:15:07
While humans don't have the ability to travel deep into the
00:15:10
Earth's interior rocks from deep within the planet can naturally
00:15:13
make their way to the surface in the form of larva.
00:15:17
The parental magma from these larva can originate from
00:15:20
different depths within the Earth, such as the upper mantle,
00:15:23
which begins about 15 kilometers under the surface, extends down
00:15:26
to about 680 kilometers or the lower mantle which spans from a
00:15:31
depth of 680 kilometers all the way down to the core mantle
00:15:35
boundary, about 2900 kilometers below the surface.
00:15:39
Like sampling different layers of a cake, the frosting, the
00:15:43
filling and the sponge scientists can study magma
00:15:45
originating from different depths of the Earth to
00:15:48
understand the different flavors of Earth's layers, the chemicals
00:15:51
found within and their ratios with respect to one another.
00:15:55
Now, because the formation of the Earth wasn't instantaneous
00:15:58
and instead evolved material secreting over time. Samples
00:16:01
from the lower mantle and upper mantle give different clues as
00:16:05
to what was happening over time during a secretion. This new
00:16:09
study suggests that the early Earth was primarily composed of
00:16:12
dry rocky materials.
00:16:14
Chemical signatures from deep within the planet show a lack of
00:16:17
so called volatiles. This new study suggests that the early
00:16:21
Earth was primarily composed of dry rocky materials because
00:16:24
chemical signatures from deep within the planet show a lack of
00:16:28
volatiles which include easily evaporated materials like water
00:16:32
and iodine.
00:16:33
In contrast, samples from the upper mantle revealed a high
00:16:36
proportion of volatiles three times those found in the lower
00:16:40
mantle.
00:16:40
Now, based on these chemical ratios, the study's authors
00:16:44
created a model that showed Earth formed from hot dry rocky
00:16:47
materials and that a major addition of life essential
00:16:50
volatiles including water only occurred during the last 15 per
00:16:54
cent or less of Earth's formation. The study provides
00:16:58
another chapter in the multitude of hypotheses contributing to
00:17:02
scenarios surrounding how the planet formed.
00:17:05
This is Space Time and time. Now to take another brief look at
00:17:24
some of the other stories making news in science this week with
00:17:27
the science report, a new study claims that the precursors of
00:17:31
the molecules needed for the origin of life on Earth may have
00:17:35
come about because of chemical reactions caused by Meteors or
00:17:38
volcanic eruptions.
00:17:39
4.4 billion years ago. The findings published in the
00:17:43
journal science reports looked at whether meteorite or ash
00:17:47
particles left on volcanic islands could have promoted the
00:17:50
change of co two in the atmosphere into early organic
00:17:53
molecules needed for life which they tested by placing all of
00:17:57
the ingredients under extreme pressure and heat.
00:18:00
The authors found that these non iron rich particles helped in
00:18:04
the conversion and they may just be the building blocks for all
00:18:07
living things we see on Earth today.
00:18:11
Bit of good news for the shall we say gravitationally
00:18:14
challenged? A new study has found that having a high body
00:18:17
mass index probably won't lead to an early death if you're
00:18:21
otherwise healthy. A report in the journal PLOS one looked at
00:18:25
previously collected data on 554 Americans dividing them
00:18:31
into nine different body mass index categories.
00:18:34
They were studied between nine and 20 years and scientists
00:18:37
found the risk of dying from any cause was similar across a wide
00:18:41
range of body mass indexes. For older adults, death didn't
00:18:46
increase for any body mass index between 22.5 and 34.9 which
00:18:51
extends into BMI categories, typically considered obese for
00:18:55
younger adults. There was no increased risk of any body mass
00:18:59
index between 22.5 and 27.4.
00:19:03
But overall for adults with a body mass index of 30 or over,
00:19:07
there was a 21 per cent to 108 per cent, increased risk of
00:19:11
death linked to their weight and the patents were found to be
00:19:14
largely the same in both men and women and across races and
00:19:17
ethnicities. The findings support the idea that body mass
00:19:21
index alone may not be a reliable indicator of overall
00:19:25
health.
00:19:27
A new study indicates that the profile of scent compounds in
00:19:31
your hands can be used to predict your sex with more than
00:19:34
96 per cent accuracy. The findings reported in the journal
00:19:39
class one used an analysis technique called mass
00:19:42
spectrometry to analyze the volatile scent compounds present
00:19:45
in the palms of 30 men and 30 women.
00:19:48
They identified the compounds in each sample and then used
00:19:52
statistics to see if they could determine the person's sex based
00:19:55
simply on their smell and they got it right.
00:19:58
96.67 per cent of the time, the researchers say this technique
00:20:02
could be used to help identify criminals when other evidence
00:20:05
such as DNA is lacking. Because crimes that involve perpetrators
00:20:09
using their hands, such as robberies, assaults and rape
00:20:12
could potentially leave valuable trace evidence at the crime
00:20:15
scene.
00:20:17
Well, if you've ever done it, standing under the bright lights
00:20:21
at the intersection of Broadway in West 45Th in the heart of the
00:20:24
Big Apple makes you feel like you're at the very center of the
00:20:27
world.
00:20:29
But the problem is it's no longer a place you'd recommend
00:20:31
to friends because New York City, once one of the greatest
00:20:35
places on Earth is now a crime infested squalor where criminal
00:20:39
activity is skyrocketing. Citizens are arrested for
00:20:42
defending themselves from violent offenders. Taxes are
00:20:45
through the roof and residents. Well, at least those who can are
00:20:48
leaving in droves of places like Florida and Texas.
00:20:52
But for the mayor of New York City, a real problem appears to
00:20:55
be the ghosts haunting Gracie Mansion, the official mayoral
00:20:58
residence, Tim Mendham from Australian skeptics says for
00:21:02
mayor Eric Adams, it really is a city that never sleeps even
00:21:06
after death.
00:21:07
TIM MENDHAM: The mayor of New York City who is Eric Adams is a
00:21:09
person with a very interesting history of his actions and his
00:21:13
beliefs is a nice way of putting it. He claims that the mayor's
00:21:17
mansion, which I think is Gray Mansion, it's called, is
00:21:20
haunted. And he has made these sort of claims about other
00:21:23
places before, actually about different places being haunted.
00:21:26
And he admits that people think I'm joking, he says, but there's
00:21:29
a ghost that runs around here and a guy running one of the
00:21:32
world's largest cities would make you worried. Actually, if
00:21:35
he had this sort of, he's not even doing it as a joke. He's
00:21:37
actually quite serious about it. So anyone that sort of sense of
00:21:40
lack of restraint about what's actually really happening and
00:21:43
lack of investigation is a worry.
00:21:44
STUART GARY: Well, they call it the second most powerful elected
00:21:46
position in the United States.
00:21:48
TIM MENDHAM: Yeah, outside of the president. Yeah. The
00:21:50
interesting thing is you go to any American city and you find a
00:21:53
lot of public buildings and old buildings are supposedly
00:21:56
haunted. It's become a thing whether it's a thing to raise
00:21:59
money through ghost tours.
00:22:00
I mean, you find museums, I think various New York museums,
00:22:04
Washington museums. I think even the Smithsonian at times had a
00:22:07
ghost tour and you worry about that. These are things,
00:22:10
buildings and organizations made up of decision making, people,
00:22:13
scientists done the.
00:22:14
STUART GARY: Ghost tours around London, wouldn't you?
00:22:16
TIM MENDHAM: I've done a little bit of a ghost investigation.
00:22:18
I've done ghost tours around Sydney.
00:22:20
STUART GARY: Oh, really? There are ghosts in Sydney as well.
00:22:22
TIM MENDHAM: There are ghost tours around Sydney. You go to
00:22:24
the quarantine station. They've got quite an interesting ghost,
00:22:26
but it comes at night and the stairs in the quarantine
00:22:29
station, the sandstone cut into the soil. You can easily go head
00:22:33
over heels down literally. But yeah, in fact, someone thought I
00:22:36
was a ghost because I sort of waved from the group to a group
00:22:38
and appeared at a distance and they came and they realized it
00:22:42
was me.
00:22:43
It wasn't on purpose. I was just having a look around. But
00:22:46
anyway, it's so easy to convince people that there's ghost. I get
00:22:49
reports all the time of American buildings. They're hardly a city
00:22:52
large or small in America, especially there could be other
00:22:55
places as well that doesn't have a haunted house of some sort or
00:22:58
another, if not several, if not quite a few.
00:23:00
And they're often, they're not necessarily all old buildings.
00:23:02
Sometimes they have fairly new buildings. This one in New York
00:23:04
City is an old building.
00:23:05
Obviously, old buildings tend towards that way as candidates
00:23:08
for hauntings, but sometimes new buildings and you wonder why,
00:23:11
especially if the died a long time before the building was
00:23:13
built, but the ghosts are built. So therefore you've got a New
00:23:16
York City mayor who believes firmly that the place he's
00:23:18
living in is haunted and that probably just sort of sits on
00:23:21
top of a lot of other strange decisions he's made.
00:23:23
It's probably in car. I said, I think a building with this much
00:23:27
history and how long it has been. I believe that there's an
00:23:29
energy that you feel in here when people hear of ghosts, they
00:23:32
think of movies. Like, I think there's an energy that's in this
00:23:35
building.
00:23:36
STUART GARY: The mayor, that's Tim Mendham from Australian
00:23:39
skeptics and that's the show for now. SpaceTime is available
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