00:00:00
This is SpaceTime Series 27 Episode 32, for broadcast on the
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13th of March 2024. Coming up on SpaceTime, NASA's Juno
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spacecraft measures Oxygen Production on the Eiffel in
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Europa, a new phenomenon challenging textbook definitions
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of white dwarf stars, and Japan 's lunar lander put to sleep
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after surviving the freezing lunar night. All that and more
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coming up on SpaceTime.
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Welcome to Space Time with Stuart Gary.
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Thank you NASA's Juno spacecraft has directly measured charged
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oxygen and hydrogen molecules from the atmosphere of Jupiter's
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ice Moon Europa.
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The findings, reported in the journal Nature Astronomy, will
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provide scientists with key constraints on the potential
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habitability of the distant world's global subsurface ocean.
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Juno's principal investigator Scott Bolton from the Southwest
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Research Institute says the study provides the first direct
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in-situ measurements of the water components existing in
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Europa's atmosphere, giving scientists a narrow range that
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could support habitability. Back in 2022, Juno completed a flyby
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of Europa, coming to within 352 kilometres of the Jovian Moon's
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frozen surface.
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Juno detected significant amounts of charged molecular
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hydrogen and oxygen being lost from the Moon's atmosphere. It's
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the first time scientists have been able to definitively detect
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hydrogen and oxygen with in-situ measurements, and so further
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confirm that Europa's atmosphere is made primarily of hydrogen
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and oxygen molecules. Now, the source of these molecules is
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thought to be water ice on Europa's surface.
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Jupiter's rampant radiation breaks down H2O's molecular
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bonds, leaving behind oxygen and hydrogen. The heavier oxygen
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molecules remain more concentrated down on the surface
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or near-surface atmosphere, while the lighter hydrogen
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molecules escape into space. The oxygen produced in the ice is
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either eventually lost from the atmosphere or it's sequestered
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back into the surface.
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Now, oxygen retained in Europa's crustal ice may work its way
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down into the Moon's subsurface ocean. From there, it could
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become a possible metabolic energy source. Europa's icy
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crust absorbs radiation, thereby protecting the liquid water
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ocean underneath. This absorption also produces oxygen
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within the ice. So in a way, the ice shell acts as Europa's
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lungs, providing a potential oxygen source for the ocean.
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The study's authors placed narrow constraints on the total
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Oxygen Production at Europa at around 12 kilograms per second.
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Now, before Juno, previous estimates ranged from as few as
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just 1 or 2 kilograms per second to over 1 kilograms per
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second. The study's new estimation of how much oxygen is
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produced within Europa's surface could inform future research
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related to its subsurface ocean and the potential there for
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life.
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After all, here on planet Earth, wherever scientists find water,
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they also find life. This is Space Time. Still to come, a new
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phenomenon challenging textbook definitions of white dwarf
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stars, and new clues about the evolution of the planet Neptune.
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All that and more still to come on Space Time.
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Astronomers have discovered a population of white dwarf stars
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that have mysteriously stopped cooling. The discovery, reported
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in the journal Nature, challenges ideas on how old
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stars really are and what happens to them when they die.
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White dwarfs are the collapsed cores of sunlight stars. Stars
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shine by fusing hydrogen into helium in their core.
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When they run out of core hydrogen, They contract,
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eventually increasing core temperatures and pressures until
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they can begin fusing core helium into carbon and oxygen.
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At the same time, a shell of hydrogen begins burning outside
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the core. Now all this causes the star's outer gaseous
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envelope to expand. And as it's now much further away from the
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contracted core, it also cools down, turning the star into a
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red giant.
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Eventually, the star will run out of core helium diffuse. And
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as these stars aren't massive enough to fuse heavier elements,
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the star dies. Its now bloated outer envelope floats away as a
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spectacular cloud called a planetary nebula. That leaves
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its white-hot stellar core exposed as a white dwarf.
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These expose stellar cores, then slowly cool over the eons.
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Astronomers think about 97% of all stars, including our own
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star the Sun, will eventually become white dwarfs. However, in
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2019, data from the European Space Agency's Gaia satellite
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discovered a population of white dwarf stars that have quite
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literally stopped cooling for more than 8 billion years.
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Now, this suggests that some white dwarfs can generate
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significant extra energy, which is at odds with the classical
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dead star picture. And astronomers were initially
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unsure exactly how this could happen.
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Scientists have long considered that white dwarfs stop producing
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heat and cool down until the dense plasma in their interiors
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eventually freezes into a solid state, and the star solidifies
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from the inside out. It's a cooling process which would take
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billions of years.
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However, according to the new research, in some white dwarfs
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the dense plasma in the interior doesn't simply freeze from the
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inside out. Instead, solid crystals that are formed upon
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freezing are less dense than the liquid, and therefore they want
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to float.
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As the crystals float upwards, they displace heavier liquids
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downwards. The transport of heavier material towards the
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centre of the star releases gravitational energy, and it's
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this energy which is enough to interrupt the star's cooling
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process, possibly for billions of years.
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One of the study's authors, Antoine Bedard from the
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University Of Warwick, says this explanation matches all the
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observed properties which have been seen in this unusual white
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dwarf population.
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The authors hypothesise that this happens in some white
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dwarfs but not others because of differences in the composition
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of the star. The study's co-author, Simon Blouin from the
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University Of Victoria, says that some white dwarf stars are
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formed by the merger of two different stars.
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When these stars collide to form a white dwarf, it changes the
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composition of the star in a way that allows for the formation of
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floating crystals.
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This new discovery will not only require astronomy textbooks to
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be revised, but also for astronomers to revisit the
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process they use to determine the age of stellar populations.
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Apparently, white dwarfs are routinely used as age
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indicators. The cooler the white dwarf star is, the older it's
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assumed to be.
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However, due to the extra delay in cooling found in some white
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dwarfs, some stars of a given temperature could be billions of
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years older than previously thought. And this complicates
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age dating and the use of white dwarfs to reconstruct the
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formation history of our Milky Way galaxy.
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This is SpaceTime. Still to come! New clues about the
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formation of the planet Neptune and Japan's Moon land are put to
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sleep after surviving the freezing lunar night. All that
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and more still to come on Space Time.
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Okay, let's take a break from our show for a word from our
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And of course, we'll have all the details in the show notes
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and on the SpaceTime website. And now... It's back to our
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show. You're listening to SpaceTime with Stuart Garry.
00:10:00
A ring of icy rocks orbiting the Sun just beyond Neptune may give
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astronomers a glimpse of how Neptune and other objects on the
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outskirts of the Solar System were formed. The key is the
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binary asteroid system, Morsomnus, a tiny pair of frozen
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worlds bound together by gravity and which originate from within
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the Kuiper Belt.
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Studying these icy asteroids can serve as a basis for
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understanding the dynamical history of Neptune and the
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family of celestial bodies known as trans-Neptunian objects.
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Together, this binary asteroid system and other nearby
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trans-Neptunian objects in the same dynamical group can act as
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an indicator to potentially track Neptune's migration before
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it's settled into its current orbit.
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Binaries separated by distances more than some misses rarely
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survive outside areas bounded by gravity and sheltered by other
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flecks of ice and rock, such as the Kuiper Belt. To survive in
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plantation in such areas, they require a slow transportation
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process towards their current orbital positions.
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It's thought that the outwards migration of the gas giants
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Jupiter and Saturn 4.5 billion years ago triggered a series of
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gravitational perturbations among the ice giants Neptune and
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Uranus, forcing them further out and away from the Sun.
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Now, the current hypothesis also suggests that these dynamical
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forces caused Neptune and Uranus to swap orbital positions and at
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the same time fling a possible third ice giant that might have
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formed in the system out of the Solar System completely to now
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wander alone through interstellar space as a rogue
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planet.
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The findings, reported in the journal Astronomy And
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Astrophysics, also used the Webb Space Telescope to study the
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surface compositions of the Moore's somnus binary pair.
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The study's authors, Anna Carolina De Souza Feliciano and
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Naomi Fenelai Lonzo from the University Of Central Florida,
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undertook the work as part of research for the Discovering the
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Surface Compositions of Trans-Neptunian Objects program,
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better known as DISCO-TNOS.
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DISCO-tnos is part of the first cycle of the James Webb Space
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Telescope's observation program focusing on the analysis of the
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Solar System and the unique spectral properties of small
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celestial bodies beyond Neptune within the Kuiper Belt. So far,
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studies of more than 60 trans-Neptunian objects have
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already been carried out under the program.
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But what's unique to this work is that it was possible to study
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the surface composition of the two components of the Moore's
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sinuous binary pair, something that had never been done before
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and which could have implications for how scientists
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understand the region beyond Neptune.
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The authors used the Webb Space Telescope's wide-spectral
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capabilities to analyze the elemental compositions of half a
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dozen suspected closely related trans-Neptunian object surfaces
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in order to confirm that Moore's somnus has much in common with
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its neighboring trans-Neptunian objects.
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These largely undisturbed bodies are designated as cold
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classical, and they serve as points of reference where
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Neptune didn't disturb them during its migration.
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Due to the similar spectroscopic behaviour of Mors And Sumnus,
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and their similarities with the cold classical group, the
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authors found compositional evidence for the formation of
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the binary pair beyond 30 astronomical units. That's
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beyond the orbit of Neptune.
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An astronomical unit is the average distance between the
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Earth and the Sun, about 150 million kilometres or 8.3 light
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minutes.
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Vanilla Lonzo says she's studying how the actual
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chemistry and physics of these trans-Neptunian objects reflect
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the distribution of molecules based on carbon, oxygen,
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nitrogen and hydrogen in the Sun 's protoplanetary disk that gave
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birth to the planets, their moons and other small bodies. Of
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course, these same molecules were also the origins of life
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and water here on Earth.
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So I am focused on the space composition of minor bodies of
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the Solar System. So minor bodies of the Solar System,
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comets, asteroids, meteorites, everything about that I am
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interested in.
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To conduct our research, we are astronomers, so we need
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telescopes. So, DISCO is the acronym for Discovering the
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Surface Composition of Trans-Eutuanian Objects. DISCO
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project is an observational program conducted on the James
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Webb Space Telescope.
00:14:20
And we were awarded with almost 100 hours on the first cycle.
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They launched the telescope, they made the first call for
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proposals, and we were awarded with almost 100 hours to study
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these icy minor bodies of the Solar System.
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And our goal is to study...
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The surface composition of these targets, 60 objects, that are
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orbiting beyond the orbit of Neptune, so they contain a lot
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of ices, but we have not been able to see them before with the
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instrumentation.
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Located ground days. So now with the JSWeb, it's a unique
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opportunity to really dig up information on what is the
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recipe to have to build a transmitting energy.
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Well, there are two things that excite me a lot. The first is
00:15:13
what I mentioned before.
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That we are seeing the Solar System as we never saw it
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before. It's like when you lead a mission and you approach an
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object.
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Before we approached Pluto.
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We had just some pixels on the screen and we knew there were
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different materials because they had different color and
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different albedo.
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But we were not ready. At least I was not ready for.
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The amazing mountains, valleys, glaciers.
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Make-ups, everything that the image is revealed.
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And that's it. It's in a similar way it's happening now for us
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with JSWeb and will happen for decades, I think. Because we
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were not able before.
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To access this kind of information with the
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instrumentation that we have. So the other amazing thing is that
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we don't know where we are going to.
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And that is not...
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As much as the senior career that are going to do that, it's
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all the young people, the next generations that are being
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trained now, working with us and the different groups, the ones
00:16:21
that are really going to.
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To explore the deep breath of the JSWC data.
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That's Anna Carolina De Souza Feliciano and Naomi Felina
00:16:32
Alonso from the University Of Central Florida. And this is
00:16:36
Space Time. Still to come, Japan 's lunar lander put to sleep
00:16:41
after surviving the long, freezing lunar night, and later
00:16:44
in the Science Report, the Great Barrier Reef suffering another
00:16:49
coral bleaching event. All that and more still to come on Space
00:16:53
Time.
00:17:09
Mission managers at JAXA, the Japan Aerospace Exploration
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Agency, have placed their lunar lander back into sleep mode
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after it surprisingly survived the freezing cold lunar night.
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The smart lander for investigating the Moon, or SLIM,
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touched down on the lunar surface in January, coming to
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rest on its side after one of its propulsion rockets failed.
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This left the spacecraft with its solar panels facing the
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wrong way.
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They needed to recharge the spacecraft's batteries and power
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the spaceship. But as the Sun angle shifted, SLIM came back to
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life for a brief two days, carrying out scientific
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observations of a crater with its high-spec camera. The thing
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is, the probe was never designed to survive the harsh 15 Earth
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Day lunar night, where temperatures can plummet to
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minus 133 degrees Celsius.
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So mission managers were surprised when the probe phoned
00:18:01
home. They grabbed as much data as they could before the
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spacecraft went back to sleep as the Sun set. They say they'll
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attempt to revive the probe again in a fortnight's time when
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the next lunar day dawns.
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That'll be late March. But they admit the likelihood of failure
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will increase due to the severe temperature cycles. The mission
00:18:21
was originally designed to examine a part of the Moon's
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mantle that lay beneath the crust, which is believed to be
00:18:27
accessible at the landing site.
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And the spacecraft has been sending back scientific data
00:18:32
during its waking hours. This is also the first time Japan have
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successfully landed a spacecraft on the Moon, making Japan only
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the fifth nation to achieve a soft lunar landing after the
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United States, the Soviet Union, China and India.
00:18:47
This is Space Time.
00:19:02
And time now to take another brief look at some of the other
00:19:04
stories making news in science this week with the Science
00:19:07
Report.
00:19:09
Scientists say a mass bleaching event is currently unfolding on
00:19:13
the Great Barrier Reef. The event, the seventh since 1998,
00:19:17
was confirmed following aerial surveys of 300 shallow reefs.
00:19:22
Coral bleaching occurs when underwater temperatures are more
00:19:25
than a degree warmer than the long-term average.
00:19:28
This causes corals to come under heat stress. That forces them to
00:19:32
expel algae living within their tissues, draining them of their
00:19:35
vibrant colours and causing them to starve. This latest bleaching
00:19:39
event is unfolding in an area where corals have not previously
00:19:43
been exposed to extreme temperatures.
00:19:46
Often called the world's largest living structure, the Great
00:19:49
Barrier Reef is a 2-kilometre-long expanse of
00:19:53
tropical corals along the Queensland Pacific Coast,
00:19:56
housing a stunning array of biodiversity.
00:20:00
A new study shows that smoking rates are down, vaping is up and
00:20:04
one in five Australians are using illegal drugs. The
00:20:08
findings are included in the Australian Institute Of Health
00:20:11
And Welfare's latest survey. The National Drug Strategy Household
00:20:15
Survey outlines the attitudes and usage of tobacco,
00:20:19
e-cigarettes and vaping, as well as alcohol and illicit drugs,
00:20:22
for more than 21 people across Australia.
00:20:26
The survey found that the rates of smoking have dropped by
00:20:29
two-thirds since 1991, while at the same time e-cigarette and
00:20:33
vaping rates are up from 2.5% in 2019 to 7% today.
00:20:39
The report also shows that three in four Australians drank
00:20:42
alcohol in the past 12 months, with close to one in three
00:20:45
consuming it in ways that put their health at risk.
00:20:48
Additionally, one in five Australians aged 14 or older
00:20:51
have been using illegal drugs. With close to half of
00:20:55
Australians reporting having used illicit drugs at least once
00:20:58
in their lifetimes.
00:21:01
A wide survey of posts on the social media platform X,
00:21:04
formerly known as Twitter, suggests that global happiness
00:21:07
levels take about two weeks to rebound following a global
00:21:11
crisis or shock. Two events, the initiation of the COVID-19
00:21:16
pandemic lockdowns and the Russian invasion of Ukraine,
00:21:19
were studied by surveying discourse on Twitter in the
00:21:22
weeks before and after the events.
00:21:24
The findings reported in the journal PLOS One suggest that
00:21:28
while people were more immediately upset by lockdown,
00:21:31
it only took two weeks for them to rebound. On the other hand,
00:21:34
the Russian invasion of Ukraine caused less of a downturn in
00:21:38
happiness, but it's taking longer for the mood to improve.
00:21:43
Apple have just released their latest IOS updates for IPhone
00:21:46
and IPads. With the details of what's in 17.4, we're joined by
00:21:51
technology editor Alex Zaharov-Wright from
00:21:53
TechAdvice.Life.
00:21:55
I've launched both 17.4 for IOS for the phones and for IPads.
00:21:59
Two big things. One is that if you're now listening to Apple
00:22:02
Podcasts, whether you're listening to shows or you're
00:22:05
watching shows, 17.4 now gives you a live transcription of what
00:22:08
's being said using, of course, AI.
00:22:10
And... The transcription seems to be extremely accurate. So if
00:22:14
you'd like to sort of read along or you'd like to get a printed
00:22:17
version of what it is that's been said, it's there. Now there
00:22:19
's things like new emojis and bug fixes.
00:22:22
Another thing with the IPhone version is that the stolen
00:22:26
device protection we spoke about previously can now be said to be
00:22:28
activated everywhere, even in locations such as home and work
00:22:32
or the pub that you frequent on a regular basis, which in theory
00:22:36
would have been marked as a safe location.
00:22:38
So if somebody sort of stole your phone from one of those
00:22:40
places. You wouldn't have had the protections that were
00:22:42
offered. So now you can manually toggle that on. So those are the
00:22:45
two sort of big things with IPhones and IPads. And the other
00:22:48
big thing that was launched is new Macs.
00:22:50
Now, there was a rumor that we'd have new IPads as well, and
00:22:52
presumably that will happen sometime this month. But the new
00:22:55
MacBook Air, the one with the 13.6-inch screen, and the new
00:22:58
MacBook Air with the 15-inch screen, now has the M3 chip. So
00:23:02
Apple has launched the M1 Chip in 2020, and they're saying this
00:23:06
M3 version is...
00:23:07
40 to 60% faster on most metrics, which is a pretty good
00:23:10
speed bump. Now, if you have the A2, well, the improvement's only
00:23:13
about 20%. And so, you know, there's no great need for you to
00:23:17
update if you bought one of the models last year.
00:23:19
But if you've been holding out for an old Intel-powered
00:23:21
version, well, you get much, much faster speeds. There's no
00:23:24
fan inside generating noise. And instead of about 6 battery
00:23:28
life, you have about 18. But for the first time, we've seen Apple
00:23:32
really promoting the fact that these new Macs are great.
00:23:35
For AI. And in fact, every Mac they say is great for AI.
00:23:37
They've had a neural engine inside the IPhones and IPads and
00:23:42
Macs for some time, at least with the version of power by the
00:23:45
M series processor.
00:23:46
And Apple is going to have a huge push this year with the
00:23:49
Worldwide Developer Conference to have like a Siri version of
00:23:52
chat VPT. And they've spent a billion dollars over the past 12
00:23:56
months to make this happen. And this is the first time that
00:23:58
Apple has really mentioned the word AI. They've let everybody
00:24:01
else mention the words AI, but they themselves.
00:24:03
Spoken about machine learning and they speak about how you can
00:24:07
use the machine learning to figure out all the different
00:24:09
photos and have them show which ones are you, your friends, your
00:24:13
partner, your pets, and all these different things that have
00:24:16
been happening in the background without actually giving you the
00:24:18
generative AI that we're used to from Google Gemini, from
00:24:22
Perplexity.AI, from CatZBT, from Microsoft Copilot.
00:24:25
So Apple's prepping us for this big push in AI. And, you know,
00:24:29
Apple normally when it does something, it does it.
00:24:31
Right. It does it in a way that everybody else wants to copy it.
00:24:34
Now, it's been very late on AI, and Apple's prepping us for
00:24:37
this. Hopefully, a lot of these AI functions will work on older
00:24:40
IPhones. Obviously, the IPhone 16 coming later this year will
00:24:43
be the one that will really push for it.
00:24:45
But, you know, there's no reason why IPhone 15 Pro Max from last
00:24:48
year, barely six months old, couldn't be able to do all the
00:24:51
same AI stuff as well. So looking forward to seeing that,
00:24:54
and that's probably the biggest news of the week thus far.
00:24:56
That's Alex Saharov-Royd from TechAdvice.Life.
00:25:02
Thank you.
00:25:09
Thank you.
00:25:15
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