S27E51: Pluto's Heart Unveiled: The Impact that Shaped a Dwarf Planet

[00:00:00] This is SpaceTime Series 27 Episode 51 for broadcast on the 26th April 2024.

[00:00:06] Coming up on SpaceTime, how Pluto got its heart.

[00:00:10] Astronomers are shocked after finding no gamma rays coming from a nearby supernova

[00:00:16] and after more than 60 years, the last ever Delta rocket is launched.

[00:00:21] All that and more coming up on SpaceTime.

[00:00:25] Welcome to SpaceTime with Stuart Gary.

[00:00:45] The mystery of how Pluto got a giant heart shaped feature on its surface is finally being solved

[00:00:51] with a cause being attributed to a giant and slow oblique angle impact.

[00:00:56] The findings reported in the journal Nature Astronomy are based on detailed computer simulations

[00:01:01] which successfully reproduced the unusual shape.

[00:01:05] Ever since the cameras of NASA's New Horizons mission discovered the large heart shaped

[00:01:09] structure on the surface of the dwarf planet Pluto in 2015, this heart has puzzled scientists

[00:01:15] because of its unique shape, geological composition and elevation.

[00:01:20] Scientists use numerical simulations to investigate the origins of Sputnik Planitia, the western

[00:01:25] teardrop shaped part of Pluto's heart surface feature.

[00:01:29] According to their research, Pluto's early history was marked by a cataclysmic impact

[00:01:34] event which forms Sputnik Planitia.

[00:01:37] A collision with a planetary body about 700km in diameter roughly twice the size

[00:01:41] of Switzerland from east to west.

[00:01:44] The team's findings also suggest that the inner structure of Pluto is very different

[00:01:48] from what was previously assumed indicating that there is no subsurface ocean.

[00:01:53] The heart also known as Tombauer Regio captured the public attention immediately upon its discovery.

[00:01:59] But it also immediately caught the interest of scientists because it's covered in a

[00:02:03] high albedo material that reflects more light than its surroundings thereby creating

[00:02:07] its wider appearance.

[00:02:09] However the heart itself isn't composed of a single element.

[00:02:13] Sputnik Planitia, that's the western part, covers an area of roughly 1200 by 2000km which

[00:02:20] is about equivalent to a quarter of the Australian landmass or if you prefer a quarter of Europe

[00:02:24] with the United States landmass.

[00:02:26] What's striking however is that this region is actually 3-4km lower in elevation than

[00:02:31] most of Pluto's surface.

[00:02:33] The bright appearance of Sputnik Planitia is due to it being predominantly filled

[00:02:37] with white nitrogen ice that moves and convicts to constantly smooth out the surface.

[00:02:43] The studies lead author Harry Ballantyne from the University of Bern says the nitrogen most

[00:02:47] likely accumulated fairly quickly after the impact due to its lower altitude.

[00:02:52] The eastern part of the heart is also covered in a similar but much thinner layer of nitrogen

[00:02:56] ice, the origin of which is still unclear but is probably related to Sputnik Planitia.

[00:03:02] The elongated shape of Sputnik Planitia strongly suggests that this impact wasn't

[00:03:06] a direct head-on collision but rather an oblique one, something slammed into its sideways.

[00:03:12] So the authors use smooth particle hydrodynamic simulation software to digitally recreate such

[00:03:17] impacts varying both the composition of Pluto and its impactor as well as the velocity

[00:03:22] and angle of the impactor.

[00:03:24] After a lot of trial and error, the simulations eventually confirm suspicions about an oblique

[00:03:29] angle of impact and they also determine the composition of the impactor.

[00:03:33] Ballantyne says Pluto's core is so cold the rocks remained very hard and didn't melt

[00:03:38] despite the heat of impact.

[00:03:40] And thanks to the angle of the impact and the low velocity, the core of the impactor

[00:03:44] didn't sink into Pluto's core but remained intact as a sort of splat on the surface.

[00:03:50] What that means is that somewhere just beneath Sputnik is the remains of the core of another

[00:03:54] massive body which Pluto never quite digested.

[00:03:58] This core strength and relatively low velocity were key to the success of the simulations.

[00:04:04] Lower strength would have resulted in a very symmetrical leftover surface feature which

[00:04:07] wouldn't look anything like the teardrop shape observed by new horizons.

[00:04:12] The findings shed new light on Pluto's internal structure as well.

[00:04:16] In fact, a giant impact like this one is much more likely to have occurred very early

[00:04:20] in Pluto's history.

[00:04:21] However, this poses a bit of a problem.

[00:04:25] You see, a giant depression like Sputnik Planitius is expected to slowly move towards the pole

[00:04:29] of the dwarf planet over time since it has a mass deficit.

[00:04:33] Yet it's paradoxically near the equator.

[00:04:36] The previous theorized explanation was that Pluto, like several other icy planetary bodies

[00:04:41] in the outer solar system, must have had a subsurface liquid water ocean.

[00:04:46] According to this earlier explanation, Pluto's icy crust would be thinner in the Sputnik

[00:04:50] Planitius region causing the ocean to bulge there.

[00:04:53] And since liquid water is denser than ice, you'd end up with a mass surplus that induces

[00:04:58] migration towards the equator.

[00:05:00] However, our new study offers an alternative perspective.

[00:05:04] The simulations suggest that all of Pluto's primordial mantle was excavated by the impact.

[00:05:11] And as the impactors core material splats onto Pluto's core, it creates a sort of

[00:05:15] local mass excess that can explain the migration towards the equator without a subsurface

[00:05:21] ocean or at most a very shallow one.

[00:05:24] This new explanation for the origin of Pluto's heart shape feature may one day lead to a better

[00:05:29] understanding of Pluto's origin.

[00:05:32] This is space time.

[00:05:34] Still to come.

[00:05:35] Astronomers are surprised that their felled-defined gamma rays from a nearby supernova explosion

[00:05:40] and history made as the last ever Delta rocket launches from Cape Canaveral.

[00:05:45] All that and more still to come on space time.

[00:05:51] The

[00:06:04] explosive death of a star in a nearby supernova event last year provided astrophysicists with

[00:06:10] an opportunity to test new ideas about how these powerful blasts can accelerate cosmic

[00:06:15] rays to superluminal speeds.

[00:06:17] However, surprisingly, astronomers failed to detect any of the high-energy gamma rays

[00:06:22] expected to be generated by the event.

[00:06:25] The supernova named SN 2023 IXF erupted on May 18 last year in the nearby Pinwall Galaxy

[00:06:32] Messier 101, some 22 million light-years away in the constellation Ursa Major, the Great

[00:06:37] Bear.

[00:06:38] A report in the journal Astronomian Astrophysics described the event as the most luminous

[00:06:43] nearby supernova since the launch of the Fermi Gamma Ray Space Telescope in 2008.

[00:06:49] The studies lead author Gulli and Martini Devinese from the University of Trieste, as

[00:06:53] astrophysicists had previously estimated that supernovae convert about 10% of their

[00:06:58] total energy into cosmic ray acceleration.

[00:07:01] The trouble is this has never actually been directly observed.

[00:07:05] So the authors were shocked when the new observations of SN 2023 IXF showed an energy

[00:07:11] conversion rate of just 1% within the first few days after the explosion.

[00:07:16] This doesn't rule out supernovae as cosmic ray factories, but it does mean that scientists

[00:07:21] need to learn an awful lot more about their production.

[00:07:25] Trillions upon trillions of cosmic rays collide with the Earth's atmosphere every

[00:07:29] day.

[00:07:30] Roughly 90% of cosmic rays are hydrogen nuclei, that is protons, and the remainder

[00:07:35] are either electrons or the nuclei of heavier elements.

[00:07:39] We've just been investigating cosmic ray origin since the early 1900s.

[00:07:44] The problem is however these particles can be traced back to their original sources.

[00:07:48] That's because they're electrically charged and so cosmic rays change course as they

[00:07:53] travel to Earth thanks to the many different magnetic fields they encounter along the

[00:07:56] way.

[00:07:58] Gamma rays however travel directly towards us, and cosmic rays produce gamma rays

[00:08:03] when they interact with matter in their environment.

[00:08:06] This is where Fermi comes in.

[00:08:08] Fermi's the most sensitive gamma ray space telescope in orbit.

[00:08:11] So when it doesn't detect an expected signal, scientists need to figure out what's

[00:08:15] going on.

[00:08:17] Of course solving this mystery will build more accurate pictures of cosmic ray

[00:08:21] origins.

[00:08:22] Astrophysicists have long suspected supernovae as being the top cosmic ray

[00:08:26] contributors.

[00:08:28] Supernova explosions occur when a star at least 8 times more massive than our

[00:08:32] Sun runs out of fuel.

[00:08:34] As we mentioned earlier this week, stars are basically balancing acts of

[00:08:38] hydrostatic equilibrium.

[00:08:40] The outward pressure of the core nuclear fusion is counteracted by the downward

[00:08:45] pressure of gravity.

[00:08:46] And once fusion ceases, gravity takes over and the core collapses.

[00:08:51] In the case of really big stars like this, the star collapses at such an

[00:08:56] incredible rate it actually rebounds,

[00:08:58] propelling a shockwave outwards through the star, creating a supernova.

[00:09:03] And this shockwave also accelerates particles creating cosmic rays.

[00:09:07] And when the cosmic rays collide with other matter as well as light surrounding

[00:09:11] the star, they generate gamma rays.

[00:09:14] Supernova greatly impact a galaxy's interstellar environment.

[00:09:18] Their blast waves and expanding clouds of debris can persist for more than

[00:09:22] 50,000 Earth years.

[00:09:24] Back in 2013 Fermi measurements showed that supernova remnants in our

[00:09:28] galaxy were accelerating cosmic rays, which then generated gamma ray light

[00:09:33] when they collided with interstellar matter.

[00:09:36] Trouble is these remnants are not producing enough high energy particles

[00:09:39] to match scientist measurements here on Earth.

[00:09:42] Now one theory hypothesizes that supernovae are accelerating the most

[00:09:46] energetic cosmic rays in our galaxy only during the first few days and

[00:09:50] weeks after the initial explosion.

[00:09:53] The thing is supernovae are rare,

[00:09:55] occurring only a few times a century in a galaxy like the Milky Way.

[00:09:59] And even out to distances of around 32 million light years, supernovae occur

[00:10:04] on average just once a year.

[00:10:06] After a month of initial observations, starting when visible light telescopes

[00:10:10] first saw SN 2023 IXF, Fermi had not detected any gamma rays.

[00:10:15] Now failing to detect gamma rays doesn't mean there are no cosmic rays.

[00:10:19] So scientists will now dissect every aspect of the event, looking deep into

[00:10:23] underlying hypotheses regarding acceleration mechanisms and environmental

[00:10:27] conditions in order to convert the absence of gamma rays into an upper limit

[00:10:32] for cosmic ray production.

[00:10:34] One hypothesis to try and explain Fermi's failure to detect gamma rays

[00:10:37] from the supernova event could involve the way the explosion

[00:10:40] distributed debris as well as the density of the material surrounding the star.

[00:10:45] But of course there are bound to be lots and lots of other options to look

[00:10:48] through and the team will need to examine all of these before reaching a conclusion.

[00:10:53] This report from NASA TV.

[00:10:56] NASA's Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope watches the sky for gamma rays,

[00:11:00] the highest energy form of light.

[00:11:03] These detections help scientists learn more about the most powerful events

[00:11:07] in the cosmos.

[00:11:08] However, a recent absence of gamma ray detection may have been just as

[00:11:13] informative.

[00:11:14] Cosmic rays are small particles like protons and helium nuclei,

[00:11:18] traveling at nearly the speed of light.

[00:11:21] It takes a lot of energy to accelerate them to that speed,

[00:11:24] so scientists assume they're driven by powerful events like exploding stars

[00:11:28] called supernovae.

[00:11:31] Because cosmic rays are charged particles, they interact with magnetic fields

[00:11:34] as they travel.

[00:11:36] These interactions mean they don't follow a straight line from their sources

[00:11:40] and so scientists can't trace where they came from.

[00:11:43] But when cosmic rays smash into other particles, they produce gamma rays

[00:11:48] and gamma rays do travel to us straight from their sources.

[00:11:52] Fermi has even detected such gamma rays from supernova remnants,

[00:11:55] which are thousands of years old.

[00:11:58] If supernovae and their remnants really are a key source of cosmic rays,

[00:12:02] then calculations tell astronomers how many gamma rays Fermi should detect.

[00:12:07] But so far, the telescope hasn't seen enough gamma rays from these sources.

[00:12:13] Scientists had suspected this was because the supernovae were too far

[00:12:16] away or observations began too late, well after peak production.

[00:12:22] In May 2023, Fermi observed the most luminous nearby supernova scene

[00:12:27] since the mission launched 15 years ago.

[00:12:30] It captured data from the first few weeks of the explosion

[00:12:33] when scientists anticipated the greatest production of cosmic rays.

[00:12:37] But Fermi didn't see any gamma rays from the explosion.

[00:12:42] Scientists aren't yet sure what this means for the link between cosmic

[00:12:45] rays and supernovae. There's still a lot of work left to do.

[00:12:49] But Fermi's non-detection has added a very important new piece to this high energy puzzle.

[00:12:56] This space time. Still to come.

[00:12:59] After more than 60 years, the last Delta rocket blasts off from Cape Canaveral.

[00:13:04] And later in the science report, a new study shows that more than a billion people

[00:13:09] around the world are now living with obesity.

[00:13:12] All that and more still to come on space time.

[00:13:30] An important piece of history was made this month with the last ever launch of a Delta rocket.

[00:13:36] After more than 64 years of service, the last ever Delta rocket blasted into orbit

[00:13:41] from Space Launch Complex 37 at the Cape Canaveral Space Force Base in Florida,

[00:13:46] carrying a classified spy satellite payload for the National Reconnaissance Office.

[00:13:51] And it was a spectacular send-off with three United Launch Alliance Delta 4

[00:13:56] straps side by side to form a single Delta 4 heavy.

[00:14:00] The extra power needed to provide the muscle to lift the giant satellite into space.

[00:14:05] It was an appropriate final send-off.

[00:14:08] The rocket payload ground systems in Eastern Ranger go for launch.

[00:14:14] Lift off is currently scheduled for 12.53 p.m. Eastern.

[00:14:24] Go for Manage and Start.

[00:14:28] Second stage LH2 secure at flight level.

[00:14:30] Status check.

[00:14:31] Go Delta.

[00:14:31] Go NRL 70.

[00:14:34] T minus 10.

[00:14:36] 9.

[00:14:37] 8.

[00:14:38] 7.

[00:14:39] 6.

[00:14:39] 5.

[00:14:40] We have ignition 2.

[00:14:42] 1.

[00:14:44] And lift off with the final United Launch Alliance Delta 4 heavy rocket,

[00:14:49] carrying NRL 70 for the National Reconnaissance Office and closing Delta's six decade legacy of

[00:14:56] excellence in space.

[00:14:57] The Delta 4 Heavy had always been the traditional workhorse,

[00:15:00] but deploying the National Reconnaissance Office clandestine payloads for over 15 years,

[00:15:05] significantly contributing to national and allied security.

[00:15:09] Now with the retirement of the Delta 4 and the Atlas V launch vehicle destined to soon follow,

[00:15:15] the stage will be set for their replacement, the United Launch Alliance new Vulcan Centaur

[00:15:20] rocket to take over.

[00:15:21] That's promising improved affordability and performance.

[00:15:25] For the record, the Delta rocket achieved some 388 launches

[00:15:29] during its more than six decades of service.

[00:15:32] And it's evolved significantly over the years from an initial 27 meter tall variant with a

[00:15:37] mass of 51 tons, culminating in the Delta 4 Heavy's impressive stature of 72 meters in height

[00:15:43] and 726 tons in mass.

[00:15:46] The Delta rocket's legacy is rich with pioneering achievements,

[00:15:50] including the deployment of the first global positioning system satellites,

[00:15:54] missions to Mars and Mercury, and the launch of groundbreaking scientific probes like the

[00:15:59] messenger probe to Eros, the dawn spacecraft of Vesta and Ceres, and the Genesis mission,

[00:16:04] which returned comet dust samples to Earth.

[00:16:07] It also launched the Kepler and Spitzer space telescopes and the first U-TilSat

[00:16:12] commercial satellite launch.

[00:16:14] The Delta 4 Heavy's final launch came as China launched its latest spy satellite,

[00:16:18] the Yogang 42A.

[00:16:20] That was flown aboard a Long March 2D rocket from the Zhaicheng Satellite Launch Center in Sichuan

[00:16:25] province.

[00:16:27] This is Space Time.

[00:16:45] And time out atek another brief look at some of the other stories making news and science this

[00:16:49] week with a science report.

[00:16:51] A new global analysis has found more than a billion people in the world are now living with

[00:16:56] obesity and for kids and teens the rate of obesity is four times what it was back in 1990.

[00:17:03] Among adults, the global obesity rate is more than doubled in women and nearly tripled in men.

[00:17:08] The study reported in the Lancet Medical Journal says around 1 in 3 Australian

[00:17:12] adults are also now obese.

[00:17:15] That's a dramatic increase from around 1 in 7 women and 1 in 8 men back in 1990.

[00:17:21] The study also found that around 1 in 7 Australian boys and 1 in 6 Aussie girls are now also obese.

[00:17:27] The countries with the highest rates of obesity on the planet now are the island nations of Tonga

[00:17:32] and American Samoa for women and American Samoa and Nauru for men, where more than 60%

[00:17:38] of the adult population is now living with obesity.

[00:17:42] A new study claims that supplementing your diet with foods that contain resistant starch,

[00:17:46] things like legumes, chickpeas and lentils may help with weight loss and insulin sensitivity.

[00:17:52] The findings reported in the journal Nature Metabolism shows that diets supplemented

[00:17:57] with 40 grams of resistant starch a day over 8 weeks helped achieve weight loss of almost

[00:18:02] 3 kilograms.

[00:18:03] The authors say that unlike other forms of starch which are digested in the small

[00:18:07] intestine, resistant starch travels to the large intestine where it is fermented by bacteria.

[00:18:13] The researchers say this process alters the abundance of a microbe called bifidobacterium

[00:18:18] adolescence to improve intestinal barrier function and reduce fat absorption.

[00:18:24] Korean engineers have come up with a new automated flushing toilet device that only

[00:18:28] works once the lid's down.

[00:18:30] It's all part of an effort to keep nasty microbes from leaving the bowl and

[00:18:34] spraying all over the place.

[00:18:35] The European Congress on Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases has been told that

[00:18:40] researchers fitted 8 hospital toilets with the device and found that when flushed,

[00:18:44] these toilets sprayed fewer bacteria onto bathroom surfaces compared to traditional toilet systems.

[00:18:50] While the differences in bacterial numbers on individual surfaces were small,

[00:18:54] overall the analysis showed that less than half as many bacterial colonies were found

[00:18:59] on the surfaces surrounding the toilets fitted with the automatic flushing devices

[00:19:03] compared to toilets not fitted with the devices.

[00:19:08] A new study claims that most people believe in the existence of angels and that 35% of people

[00:19:15] claimed to have actually had encounters with them.

[00:19:17] Now the research was undertaken for a book called Looking for Angels,

[00:19:21] a guide to understanding connecting with angels.

[00:19:24] But as Tim Mendham from Astrian Skeptics points out,

[00:19:27] the study raises so many red flags its true worth is hardly questionable.

[00:19:32] This is a survey from a group called Looking for Angels.

[00:19:35] So that's the worry to start looking for angels and not saying do they exist,

[00:19:39] they're looking for them.

[00:19:40] They did a survey of and the numbers are confusing to me but it's a survey of 800

[00:19:45] people around the world. Not a lot globally but 800 people around the world.

[00:19:49] The trouble is the three countries represent 75% of the results.

[00:19:53] What they did was they asked me if they had an encounter or would they believe in angels?

[00:19:57] Those people who didn't believe in angels, they watched off their survey.

[00:20:00] Okay, so they didn't ask them any more questions.

[00:20:02] So what they said is 75% of the people who said they believed in angels

[00:20:06] clicked an angel or had had encounters.

[00:20:08] So that takes a down a bit.

[00:20:09] The three biggest countries they looked at that had the biggest results

[00:20:12] was South Africa, United States and India.

[00:20:14] All of which have a fairly strong religious base compared to some other countries.

[00:20:18] Like the numbers of people coming out of countries like Australia was two people.

[00:20:22] Canada was one.

[00:20:23] UK had a few more than that but the United States, South Africa and India

[00:20:27] are known for being highly religious to the countries.

[00:20:30] So therefore they got the vast bulk of their survey that they were studying from those three places.

[00:20:35] So it can indicate that you're going to get a bit of a bias in your results anyway.

[00:20:39] So these were people who had already said that they believe in angels.

[00:20:42] So 75% of their total figure from these highly religious countries said they believe in angels.

[00:20:47] So that was a bit dodgy for a start.

[00:20:48] Then they went on to say what types of encounters have you had for those people who do believe?

[00:20:52] And they have things like have vivid or recurring dreams,

[00:20:55] experience a strong sense to change action,

[00:20:58] of smelling things, seeing repeated number patterns,

[00:21:01] seeing an animal or an insect repeatedly.

[00:21:03] Various things that are sort of what they regard anecdotally as strange experiences

[00:21:07] means they've had an encounter with an angel.

[00:21:09] The trouble is also with this survey and other research.

[00:21:11] They obviously asked people have you had any of these encounters?

[00:21:14] And people only were allowed to take one.

[00:21:16] Now normally people would take more than one if they'd had various encounters with angels, whatever.

[00:21:22] For instance they asked people what was the feelings they'd had associated with these things

[00:21:26] and one of them was a peaceful calm feeling, 20% of respondents said they had.

[00:21:30] So then there was another one which was a warm hug, which a feeling.

[00:21:33] And therefore you think all right okay aren't they pretty similar?

[00:21:36] And you know sometimes it were frightened, some people were confused,

[00:21:39] some people were nothing in particular but I mean you're only allowed to choose one

[00:21:43] and that makes 100%.

[00:21:44] You say no no no no no no.

[00:21:45] Surely you can choose two or three or whatever

[00:21:49] and therefore your end result will be more than 100%.

[00:21:52] That's fine, that's the way surveys like that work.

[00:21:54] So this one doesn't, I think this is a pretty poorly set up survey of a cohort

[00:21:59] which tends to be believers of this group that they used in their survey.

[00:22:04] I think it's only about close to 10% had no religious feelings.

[00:22:07] So you've got a biased survey of a biased group with incomplete questions

[00:22:12] that won't give you a full picture of the feelings that are going on

[00:22:15] and it's done from the basis of two people.

[00:22:17] One of them is the psychic, self-sufficiency, who has been helping people deal with angels

[00:22:22] for a long time and another fellow who's a psychologist

[00:22:25] and these two people are promoting this thing.

[00:22:27] So they're promoters of angels to start with, questionable from a scientific point of view

[00:22:31] and they're low and behold they're finding people who believe in angels

[00:22:34] and have had experiences.

[00:22:35] So they're going into this survey pre-believing in angels

[00:22:39] and talking to people who believe in angels about what they believe.

[00:22:42] So it's really it's sort of interesting to the fact that the survey questions

[00:22:46] and things are so poorly set up you can't even get a really good picture out of it.

[00:22:50] So funny enough it's not a really good study.

[00:22:52] It's trying to guide you to a foregone conclusion isn't it?

[00:22:55] Yes absolutely.

[00:22:56] That's Tim Endham from Australia Skeptics.

[00:23:13] And that's the show for now.

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