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This is Space Time, Series 28, Episode 120, for broadcast on
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the 6th of October 2025. Coming up on Space Time, a new study
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warns the universe will end in 20 billion years from now, a new
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three-dimensional map of our Milky Way galaxy, and how fungi
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set the stage for life on land on planet Earth. All that and
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more coming up on Space Time.
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Welcome to Space Time with Stuart Gary.
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A new study claims the universe is now approaching the midpoint
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of its 33 billion year lifespan and will come to an end in
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around 20 billion years time.
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A report in the Journal Of Cosmology and Astroparticle
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Physics says calculations based on new data from dark energy
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observatories suggest that after expanding to its peak size in
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about 11 billion years from now, our universe will begin to
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contract, eventually snapping back like a rubber band to form
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a singularity. At the end of time.
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The study's lead author, Henry Tai from Cornell University,
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says he reached his conclusion after adding new data to a model
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involving Albert Einstein's famous cosmological constant, a
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factor introduced more than a century ago by Einstein and
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still used by cosmologists today to predict the future of the
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universe.
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Tai says that for the last 20 years, scientists have believed
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the cosmological constant was positive and the universe would
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therefore expand forever. But he claims the new data seems to
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indicate that in fact, the cosmological constant is
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actually negative, and the universe will end up in a big
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crunch. Right now, the universe is 13.8 billion years old, and
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it's still expanding.
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According to current models, based on dark energy, its two
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simplest fates are that it'll either continue its present
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expansion forever, that's if the cosmological constant is
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positive, or alternatively, if the cosmological constant is
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actually negative, it'll reach a maximum size. Before
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contracting, eventually collapsing back to zero.
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Tai says this big crunch defines the end of the universe, and he
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says that'll happen in around 20 billion years from now. The
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findings are based on observations by the Dark Energy
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Survey in Chile and the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument
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DESI in Arizona, which are both in good accord with each other's
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data.
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The whole idea of the Dark Energy Survey of these two
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groups is to see whether dark energy, which makes up roughly
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68% of the world's energy, percent of the mass energy
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budget of the universe really comes from a pure cosmological
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constant. The authors found that the universe is not just
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dominated by a cosmological constant known as dark energy.
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Tying colleagues propose there's a hypothetical particle of very
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low mass that behaved like a cosmological constant early in
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the life of the universe, but doesn't anymore. And it's this
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simple model which fits the data so well, and tips the underlying
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cosmological constant into negative territory. Tai says
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scientists have said before that if the cosmological constant is
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negative, then the universe would eventually collapse.
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That's not new. However, here, the model tells you when the
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universe collapses and how it collapses. Hundreds of
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astronomers are busy measuring dark energy by observing
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millions of galaxies across the cosmos and determining the
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distance between these galaxies, gathering more and more accurate
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data to feed into the model.
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DESI will continue observations for another year. And
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observations are ongoing or soon begin with several other dark
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energy observatories, including the Zwicky Transient Facility in
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San Diego, the European Euclid Space Telescope, NASA's recently
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launched SPHERE-X Mission, and the Vera C.
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Rubin Observatory. Tai says knowing both the beginning and
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the end of the universe provides a greater understanding of the
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cosmos. As to where the universe goes once it contracts down into
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a big crunch, well, the answer's simple. The universe. Goes into
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the future.
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This is Space Time. Still to come, a new three-dimensional
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map of our Milky Way galaxy and how fungi set the stage for life
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on land on planet Earth. All that and more still to come on
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Space Time.
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The European Space Agency's Gaia Space Telescope has created the
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most accurate three-dimensional map yet of star-forming regions
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in our Milky Way galaxy.
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This new map will teach astronomers more about these
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obscure molecular gas and dust clouds and the hot young stars
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born within them and which ultimately shape them.
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It's notoriously difficult to map and study regions of space
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where stars form because they're usually hidden from view by
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thick clouds whose distances cannot be accurately directly
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measured. Now, Guy itself doesn't see these clouds, but he
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can measure stellar positions and the so-called extinction of
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stars.
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This means it can see how much light from the star is being
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blocked by dust. From this, astronomers can create
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three-dimensional maps showing where the dust is and use those
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maps to figure out how much ionized gas is present, a
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telltale sign of star formation.
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The new three-dimensional map of star-forming regions in the
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Milky Way is based on Gaia observations of some 44 million
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ordinary stars and 87 spectrotype O blue stars. The
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map extends out to a distance of some 4 light-years.
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Spectrotype O blue stars are rare.
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They're young, massive and extremely bright and hot. And
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they shine bright in ultraviolet light. These ultraviolet photons
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are so energetic, they can quite literally strip electrons away
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from hydrogen atoms when hitting them. In this way, they ionize
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the hydrogen gas around hot stars, meaning it becomes a
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mixture of charged particles.
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Astronomers call these ionized hydrogen clouds hydrogen-2
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regions. A characteristic signal that can be picked up from these
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regions is the hydrogen-alpha or H-alpha spectral line. At a
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wavelength of 656.3 nanometers.
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This is one way that astronomers can identify regions in space
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where stars are being born. Many telescopes have observed these
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regions, so astronomers have a good idea of what they look
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like. But no one really knew what they looked like in three
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dimensions, or from an outside perspective.
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And that's where Gaia comes in. Gaia has mapped the positions,
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velocities and motions across the sky of billions of celestial
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objects, including millions of stars. The result is the most
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accurate multidimensional map of the Milky Way galaxy ever
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created, and it's giving astronomers the data to infer
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what the galaxy would look like from the perspective of someone
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outside the Milky Way.
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Gaia's sky maps in all three spatial coordinates, plus three
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velocities that he's moving towards or away from the Earth
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and moving across the sky, have revealed the precise motions and
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positions of millions of nearby stars.
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With this, the telescopes already revolutionized science's
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view of the solar neighborhood. Allowing astronomers to
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comprehensively map the stars and interstellar material near
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the Sun in a way that they were simply unable to do before.
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One of the study's authors, Lewis McCallum from the
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University Of St. Andrews, says Gaius providing the first
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accurate view of what our section of the Milky Way galaxy
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really would look like from above. He says there's simply
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never been a model of the distribution of ionized gas in
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the local Milky Way that matches other telescopes' observations
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of the sky so well.
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That's why astronomers are so confident that Gaia's top-down
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view and fly-through of the galaxy are a good approximation
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of what these clouds would really look like in three
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dimensions.
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Lewis's new map includes three-dimensional views of the
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Gunn Nebula, the North American Nebula, the California Nebula
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and the Orion-Eridana Superbubble. This data will
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allow astronomers to learn more about how giant spectrotype
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O-stars energize gas and how far out their influence can reach.
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Lewis and colleagues already noticed that some of the clouds
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in the star-forming regions seem to have broken open, and streams
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of gas and dust are likely venting into a giant cavity. The
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map also shows how radiation from massive stars ionizes the
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surrounding interstellar medium, and how dust and gas interact
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with this radiation.
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The 3D model provides a detailed look at the processes that shape
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our local galactic environment, and it helps astronomers better
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understand interactions between the warm and cold. Cold
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components of the local universe. In the future, this
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map, which requires huge computational power to develop,
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will expand even further, including an even larger area of
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the home galaxy.
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This report from ESA TV.
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What does the Milky Way look like from the outside? No
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spacecraft can travel beyond our galaxy, so we can't take a
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selfie.
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But during its lifetime, Gaia made 3 trillion observations of
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two... Billion stars and other objects, giving us the best
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insight yet of what our home galaxy looks like. We can
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identify the Milky Way's central bar and its spiral arms. Based
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on Gaia data, we see the galaxy edge on and can identify its
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bulge and disc.
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Gaia shows that our galaxy's disc is warped and wobbles,
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possibly caused by a collision with another smaller galaxy.
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Moving further out, Gaia also studied other galaxies around
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the Milky Way, such as the Large and the Small Magellanic Clouds,
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and 40 other companions.
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Gaia revealed our galaxy's turbulent history by tracking
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the movements of streams of stars. Gaia gives a unique view
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of our Milky Way, scanning our galaxy from the inside out,
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building a more detailed map than ever before, fundamentally
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changing what we thought we knew about our home galaxy. Where our
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Sun is embedded among billions of stars.
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This is Space Time. Still to come, how fungals set the stage
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for life on land on planet Earth, and later in the science
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report, a new study says people whose parents have mental
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illnesses are more likely to die prematurely. All that and more
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still to come on Space Time.
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A new study examining life's evolution on planet Earth has
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found that fungi set the stage for life on land somewhere
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between 900 million and 1.4 billion years ago. That's
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hundreds of millions of years earlier than previously thought.
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The findings, reported in the Journal Nature, Ecology and
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Evolution, used a novel gene swap method to shed new light on
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the timelines and pathways for the evolution of fungi. The
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discovery, by researchers from the Okinawa Institute Of Science
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And Technology, provides evidence for the evolution of
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fungi-run terrestrial ecosystems and therefore the emergence of
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life on land.
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It suggests these ecosystems recycled nutrients and possibly
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partnered with other organisms. Pinning down their timelines
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shows fungi were diversifying long before plants and
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consistent with early partnerships with algae that
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likely helped pave the way for terrestrial ecosystems.
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Complex multicellular life, that is organisms made from many
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cooperating cells with specialised jobs, evolved
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independently on Earth on at least five major occasions.
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Animals, land plants, fungi, red algae and brown algae.
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Understanding when these groups emerged is fundamental to
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piecing together the history of life on Earth.
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See, complex multicellular life wasn't simply a matter of cells
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clumping together. It was the dawn of organisms, where cells
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took on specialised jobs and were organised into distinct
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tissues and organs. For most of these groups, the fossil record
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acts as a geological calendar, providing anchor points in deep
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time.
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For example, red algae shows up as early as 1.6 billion years
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ago in candidate seaweed-like fossils from India. Animals
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appeared around 600 million years ago based on Ediacaran
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fossils such as the quilted pancake-like Dickinsonia. The
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first land plants took root roughly 470 million years ago
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based on the discovery of tiny fossil spores.
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And brown algae such as kelp, diversified tens to hundreds of
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million years later still. And based on all this evidence, a
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chronological picture of life's complexity starts to emerge. But
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the notable exception to this fossil-based timeline has always
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been fungi. The fungal kingdom has long been an enigma for
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paleontologists. Their typically soft filamentous bodies means
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they rarely fossilize well.
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And unlike animals or plants, which appear to have a single
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origin of complex multicellularity, It seems fungi
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evolved this trait multiple times from diverse unicellular
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ancestors, making it difficult to pinpoint a single origin
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event in the fossil record.
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To overcome the gaps in the fungal fossil record, scientists
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are relying on the steady rate at which genetic mutations
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accumulate in an organism's DNA over generations. By comparing
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the number of genetic differences between two species,
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scientists can reach an estimate of how long ago they diverged
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from a common ancestor. The problem is this molecular clock
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is still uncalibrated.
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It can reveal relative time, but not absolute years. To set the
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clock, scientists need to calibrate it with anchor points
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from the fossil record. And given the scarcity of fungal
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fossils, this has always been a major challenge. The new study
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addressed this by incorporating rare gene swaps between
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different fungal lineages, a process known as horizontal gene
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transfer.
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While genes are normally passed down vertically from parent to
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child, Horizontal gene transfer is like a gene jumping sideways
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from one species to another. And if a gene from lineage A is
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found to have jumped into lineage B, it establishes a
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clear rule. The ancestors of lineage A must be older than the
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descendants of lineage B.
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By identifying 17 such transfers, the authors
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established a series of older-than, younger-than
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relationships that, alongside fossil records, have helped to
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tighten and constrain the fungal timeline. The analysis suggests
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a common ancestor for living fungal dating to between roughly
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900 million and 1.4 billion years ago. That's well before
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land plants.
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That timing supports a long prelude of fungal-algae
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interactions, fundamentally reframing the story of life's
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colonization of land. It suggests that for hundreds of
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millions of years before the first true plants took root,
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fungi were already present, likely interacting with algae in
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microbial communities. And this long preparatory phase may well
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have been essential for making Earth's continents habitable.
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By breaking down rock and recycling nutrients, these
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ancient fungi may well have been the first true ecosystems
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engineers, creating the first primitive soils and
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fundamentally altering the terrestrial environment. It
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means plants didn't colonize a barren wasteland, but rather a
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world that had already been prepared for them over eons by
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the ancient and persistent activity of the fungal kingdom.
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Meanwhile, a report in the Journal Of The Proceedings Of
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The National Academy Of Sciences has unearthed new evidence in
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the ancient rock record suggesting that some of the
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first animals on Earth were likely ancestors of the
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modern-day sea sponge.
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The study's authors identified chemical fossils that may have
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have been left by ancient sponges in rocks that are almost
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541 million years old. A chemical fossil is a remnant of
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a biomolecule that originated from a living organism that has
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since been buried, transformed and preserved in sediment,
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sometimes for hundreds of millions of years.
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The newly identified fossils are special types of steranes, which
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are a geologically stable form of sterols, such as cholesterol,
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that are found in the cell membranes of complex organisms.
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The storanes were found in rocks formed during the Ediacaran
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period, between roughly 541 and 635 million years ago.
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That's just before the Cambrian Explosion, when planet Earth
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experienced a sudden global explosion of complex
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multicellular lifeforms. The authors traced these special
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storanes to a class of sea sponges known as demosponges.
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Today, demosponges come in a huge variety of sizes and
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colors, and they live throughout the oceans of the Earth as soft
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filter feeders. The new discovery offers strong evidence
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that the ancestors of demo sponges were among the very
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first animals to have evolved, and they likely did so much
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earlier than the rest of Earth's major animal groups.
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This is Space Time.
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Time now to take a brief look at some of the other stories making
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news in science this week with a science report. Scientists have
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found a significant link between drinking soda beverages and
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depression.
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The findings reported in the Journal Of The American Medical
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Association also showed that this effect could be
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significantly mediated by how much of a specific bacterium
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called eggophilia existed in a person's intestinal tract. The
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authors looked inside the soft drink habits and microbiomes of
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almost a thousand people.
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Just over 400 of whom had been diagnosed with major depressive
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conditions. They believe that drinking pop may contribute to
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the condition through microbiome changes, especially those
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involving eggothelia in female patients.
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While this kind of study cannot prove a direct connection
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between soft drinks and depression, the authors are
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suggesting prevention strategies that reduce consumption of these
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drinks and target the microbiome in treatment.
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Scientists say people whose parents have mental illnesses
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are more likely to die prematurely up to middle age.
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The findings, reported in the Journal Of The American Medical
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Association, examined medical records for more than 3.5
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million Swedish people, around 1.2 million of whom had parents
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with mental illnesses.
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They say the link between parental mental illness and
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premature death held true for all mental disorders and was
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strongest for unnatural deaths, which include suicides, murder
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and accidents. And if both parents were diagnosed with
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mental disorders. The findings highlight the importance of
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providing support for families with parents with mental
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disorders in order to minimize premature deaths among their
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children.
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One of the oldest people in the world who died just last year at
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the ripe old age of 117 may have survived so long because her
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body was still working as if she was at a much younger biological
00:19:02
age. Among signs of a healthy body, the Journal Cell Reports
00:19:06
Medicine found that her DNA had markings.
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Usually found in younger people, and that she had rare gene types
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linked to long life. They also found differences in her
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microbiome, including having more of a type that people
00:19:18
typically lose with older age. The researchers say this shows
00:19:22
that old age doesn't always have to be linked with disease.
00:19:27
The glittering highlight of the Australian Skeptical Calendar is
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the annual Skepticon Conference, which this year was held in
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Melbourne. Of course, one of the highlights of the event is the
00:19:36
highly coveted Bent Spoon Award.
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Which is presented annually to the perpetrator of the most
00:19:40
preposterous piece of paranormal or pseudoscientific piffle. The
00:19:45
award is rumoured to have been fashioned out of a piece of
00:19:48
gopher wood salvaged from Noah's Ark.
00:19:51
Upon its sturdy base is affixed a spoon rumoured to have been
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used at the Last Supper. The spoon was allegedly bent by Yuri
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Geller using old magic, energies unknown to science.
00:20:02
Past winners of this elegant trophy for displaying a total
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lack of scientific understanding or an ability to pile the bull
00:20:08
up high, have included the Australian Broadcasting
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Corporation, the ABC, for demonstrating new lows in
00:20:14
journalistic standards, with their motto, Never let the facts
00:20:17
get in the way of a good story.
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The University Of Wollongong, for proving once and for all
00:20:21
that you don't need to be smart or even right, or for that
00:20:24
matter, scientifically accurate, in order to get a doctorate.
00:20:27
Then there was the Adelaide psychic Anne Dankbar, for her
00:20:30
discovery of the Colossus of Rhodes, which created something
00:20:33
of a media frenzy, till it was shown to be nothing more than
00:20:35
modern builder's rubble.
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The ABC won it again for their television show Second Opinion,
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which promoted so much unscientific quackery, that they
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really should have gotten a few more opinions. Southern Cross
00:20:46
University was another award winner, for offering a degree
00:20:49
course in naturopathy.
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Even the once exalted CSIRO has been awarded, with its chief,
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Larry Marshall, getting a special mention for his support
00:20:58
of water divining. The ABC won the award yet again for spending
00:21:02
taxpayer money on psychic investigators. Then there was
00:21:05
racing driver Peter Brock, whose highly touted energy polariser
00:21:09
generated more heat from the motoring media than what it did
00:21:12
energy in his car.
00:21:13
The special broadcasting service SPS won the award for their TV
00:21:17
program Medicine or Myth. They were promoting alternative
00:21:20
medical treatments as if they had some actual scientific
00:21:22
credibility. As opposed to being nothing more than an occasional
00:21:26
placebo effect. The Melbourne Metropolitan Board Of Works won
00:21:29
their award for hiring a US psychic archaeologist to help
00:21:33
detect non-existent electromagnetic photo fields.
00:21:36
Oh, and once again, the taxpayer-funded ABC won the
00:21:39
award, this time for their television show The New
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Inventors, which seriously considered the pseudoscientific
00:21:44
benefits of an anti-bio-water conditioning system, which
00:21:48
probably should have been filtered through the kidneys a
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few more times. In case you're wondering, that's more than a
00:21:52
billion dollars of Australian taxpayers' money spent by the
00:21:56
ABC every year.
00:21:58
And of course, there was Paleo Pete Evans for his promotion of
00:22:01
the BioCharger, a miraculous device that, according to its
00:22:04
manufacturers, has been proven to restore strength, stamina,
00:22:08
coordination and mental clarity. Like the ABC, Evans was a
00:22:12
multiple winner.
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He previously won the spoon back in 2015 for his Paleo Diet
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Advocacy, which included promoting bone broth as a
00:22:19
formula replacement for babies. As well as his campaigns against
00:22:22
fluoridation and vaccination. Tim Mindum from Australian
00:22:26
Skeptic says this year's exalted winner was banned naturopath
00:22:30
Barbara O'Neill.
00:22:31
The Ben Spoon Award went to a lady named Barbara O'Neill.
00:22:34
Barbara O'Neill is a self-entitled naturopath, even
00:22:38
though she doesn't have any qualifications, who was running
00:22:41
a retreat in New South Wales, up in the sort of forested areas in
00:22:45
the north, and various people, including a number of skeptics,
00:22:48
complained about her activities and what she was saying.
00:22:50
And then the New South Wales Healthcare Complaints Commission
00:22:53
took action, looked at what she was saying, realised what she
00:22:56
was saying was extremely dangerous, totally unqualified
00:22:59
and wrong, and they actually banned her for life for
00:23:01
practising in Australia in any medical capacity at all. So what
00:23:05
she's done now is she goes Overseas and streams stuff.
00:23:08
She's been big in Ireland and the UK and in the US. She has a
00:23:11
tendency to suggest people rub garlic and onions and things
00:23:16
like that on them. It's a bad advice, isn't it? To get rid of
00:23:18
vampires, if only, it would be very handy. To cure all sorts of
00:23:22
things, everything from cancer to medical conditions of some
00:23:26
sort or another, mental conditions even.
00:23:28
We always have the suspicion that because she's recommending
00:23:30
so many vegetables, she's being paid for by big pharma.
00:23:34
But she is totally unqualified, even though she occasionally
00:23:38
allows herself to be called doctor. She is not. She's been
00:23:41
very active in the last year. A lot of people see as what she's
00:23:44
suggesting as not being. Dangerous in its own right.
00:23:47
Rubbing onions on your foot is not going to kill you. But the
00:23:49
trouble is she is saying, don't go, don't do chemotherapy. Don't
00:23:52
do this therapy. Don't do that therapy.
00:23:54
It's going to kill your social life.
00:23:56
But it also sort of means you're turning away from actually
00:23:58
medical procedures that do work in favour of these quack cures
00:24:01
that she promotes. And that's where the danger is. She's
00:24:04
anti-vaccination. She's all the usual anti-things.
00:24:06
That's Tim Mendham from Australian Skeptics.
00:24:25
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